第10章

issupplementedbyabeliefthatbyworkingtoohardhedeprivessomeotherworkerofajob。ScientificManagement，therefore，setsitselftoworkoutbyexperimenttheexacttoolormachineappropriatetoeachaction，themosteconomicalandeffectivewaybywhichaworkercanworkthetoolormachine，andthebestmethodofselectingworkersforeachjobandofstimulatingthemtoperformeachactionwiththegreatestaccuracyandcelerity。Bymeansofstrictlyquantitativetestsitworksoutstandardtools，standardmethodsofworkandstandardtestsfortheselection，organisation，stimulation，andsupervisionoftheworkman。

Inhisexpositionofthiseconomy1Mr。Taylortakesashissimplestillustrationofchoiceoftoolsthe"art"ofshovelling。Lefttohimself，orworkingwithagang，theshovellerwilluseashovelwhoseweight，size，andshapehaveneverbeenconsideredinrelationtotheparticularmaterialithastomoveorthesortofmanwhohastouseit。"Byfirstselectingtwoorthreefirst-classshovellers，andpayingthemextrawagesfordoingtrustworthywork，andthengraduallyvaryingtheshovelloadandhavingalltheconditionsaccompanyingtheworkcarefullyobservedforseveralweeksbymenwhowereaccustomedtoexperimenting，itwasfoundthatafirst-classmanwoulddothebiggestday"sworkwithashovelloadofabout21pounds。"2Asaresultofthisdiscovery，insteadofallowingeachshovellertochoosehisownshovel，thecompanyprovidedeightortendifferentkindsofshovelsaccommodatedtotheweightofdifferentmaterialsandtootherspecial

conditions。Again，thousandsofstop-watchobservationsweremadetodiscoverhowquicklyalabourer，providedwithhispropershovel，couldpushtheshovelintothematerialsanddrawitoutproperlyloaded。Asimilarstudywasmadeof"thetimerequiredtoswingtheshovelbackwardandthenthrowtheloadforagivenhorizontaldistance，accompaniedbyagivenheight。"Withtheknowledgethusobtaineditwaspossibleforthemandirectingshovellers，firsttoteachthemtheexactmethodofusingtheirstrengthtothebestadvantage，andthentoassignthedailytaskbywhichtheycouldearnthebonuspaidforthesuccessfulperformanceofthistask。

For，thoughtheskilleddirectorcanprescribetherighttoolandtherightmethod，hecannotgettherequiredresultwithoutthewillingcooperationoftheindividualworker。Forthispurposeabonusisapplied，thesizeofwhichisitselfasubjectofscientificexperiment。Therelationofthisbonustotheordinarydayorpiecewagewillvarywiththevarioustypesofworkandworkers。IntheBethlehemSteelWorksitwasfoundthatthebesteffectinstimulatingenergywasgotbyabonusofabout60percent，beyondthewagesusuallypaid。"Thisincreaseinwagestendstomakethemnotonlythriftybutbettermenineveryway；theyliveratherbetter，begintosavemoney，becomemoresober，andworkmoresteadily。When，ontheotherhand，theyreceivemuchmorethana60percentincreaseofwages，manyofthemwillworkirregularlyandtendtobecomemoreorlessshiftless，extravagant，anddissipated。Ourexperimentsshowed，inotherwords，thatitdoesnotdoformostmentogetrichtoofast。"3

Consideringthatitwasclaimedthattheresultofthisnewplanofworkwastoraisetheaveragedailyoutputpermanfrom16to59tons，andtosecureanannualsavinginthelabour-billamountingtobetween$75，000and$80，000，itwouldhavebeeninterestingtofollowtheeffectsofarapidadvanceofwealthuponthedividend-receiverswhogainedsodisproportionateashareoftheadvantagesoftheneweconomy。

§；3。Sofarastheselectionandadaptationoftoolstothespecialconditionsoftheworkareconcerned，thereexistsnooppositionbetweenthebusinessandthehumaneconomy。Ifashovellercanshovelmorematerialwithoutgreaterexertionbyusingaparticularshovel，thesystemwhichensureshisusingthisshovelisbeneficialtoeverybody，assumingthathegetssomeshareofthevalueoftheincreasedoutput。Whenweturnfromasimpletooltomoreelaboratemachinery，itbecomesevidentthatquantitativetestingiscapableofachievingenormoustechnicaleconomies。Mr。Taylordescribesthegainsintheoutputofmetal-cuttingmachinesmadebymeansofsucheconomies。"Itspullingpoweratthevariousspeeds，itsfeedingcapacity，anditsproperspeedsweredeterminedbymeansoftheslide-rules，andchangeswerethenmadeinthecountershaftanddrivingpulleyssoastorunittoitsproperspeed。Tools，madeofhighspeedsteelandofthepropershapes，wereproperlydressed，treatedandground。Alargespecialslide-rulewasthenmade，bymeansofwhichtheexactspeedsandfeedswereindicatedatwhicheachkindofworkcouldbedoneintheshortestpossibletimeinthisparticularlathe。Afterpreparinginthiswaysothattheworkmanshouldworkaccordingtothenewmethod，oneafteranother，piecesofworkwerefinishedinthelathe，correspondingtotheworkwhichhadbeendoneinourpreliminarytrials，andthegainintimemadethroughrunningthemachineaccordingtoscientificprinciplesrangedfromtwoandone-halftimesthespeedintheslowestinstancetoninetimesthespeedinthehighest。"4

Thisillustration，however，makesitevidentthatwhenwepassfromtechnicalimprovementsoftoolstoimprovedmethodsofworking，weopenpossibilitiesofoppositionbetweenthebusinessandthehumaninterest。

Animprovementintheshapeorcontourofthe"cuttingedge"foraparticularmaterialisanunqualifiedgain。Soisadiscoveryastothewaysinwhichhardnessorsoftnessofmetalsaffectsthecuttingrate。Butwhenitisaquestionofevokingfromtheworkmanahigherpaceofmovementtomeettherequirementsofthespeeded-upmachine，nosuchconsistencyofinterestscanbeassumed。Thefactthatbyselection，instruction，andminutesupervision，workmencanbegottoworksuccessfullyatthehigherspeed，andregardthemselvesassufficientlycompensatedbyabonusof35percent，doesnotsettlethequestionofhumanvalues。Sofarastheselectiveprocesssimplychoosesthemenmosteasilycapableofworkingatahigherspeedandofeliminatingthosewhocouldnoteasilyorpossiblyadaptthemselvesto

it，nonetincreaseofhumancostisinvolved。Butsofarasthebonusandthe"athletic"spiritwhichitisusedtoevoke，5induceworkmentogiveoutanamountofmuscularornervousenergyinjurioustotheminthelongrun，thehumancostmaygreatlyoutweighboththesocialvalueoftheincreasedoutputandtheutilitytothemofhigherwages。Howcrucialisthisquestionofspeeding-upthehumanlabouriswellillustratedbytheexperimentsinbricklaying，bymeansofwhichthebricklayersengagedonstraightwork，wereraisedfromanaverageof120brickspermanperhourto350。ByalterationsofapparatusMr。Gilbrethdispenseswithcertainmovementswhichbricklayersformerlyconsiderednecessary，whilesavingtimeintheactualprocessoflayingbyusingbothhandsatthesametime，bricksbeingpickedupwiththelefthandatthesameinstantthatatrowelofmortarisseizedwiththeright。

"Itishighlylikelythatmanytimesduringalloftheseyearsindividualbricklayershaverecognisedthepossibilityofeliminatingeachoftheseunnecessarymotions。Butevenif，inthepast，hedidinventeachoneofMr。Gilbreth"simprovements，nobricklayercouldaloneincreasehisspeedthroughtheiradoption，becauseitwillberememberedthatinallcasesseveralbricklayersworktogetherinarowandthatthewallsallaroundabuildingmustgrowatthesamerateofspeed。Noonebricklayer，then，canworkmuchfasterthantheonenexttohim。Norhasanyworkmantheauthoritytomakeothermencooperatewithhimtodofasterwork。Itisonlythroughenforcedstandardisationofmethods，enforcedadoptionofthebestimplementsandworkingconditions，andenforcedcooperationthatthisfasterworkcanbeassured。Andthedutyofenforcingtheadoptionofstandardsandofenforcingthiscooperationrestswiththemanagementalone。Themanagementmustsupplycontinuallyoneormoreteacherstoshoweachnewmanthenewandsimplermotions，andtheslowermenmustbeconstantlywatchedandhelpeduntiltheyhaverisentotheirproperspeed。Allofthosewho，afterteaching，eitherwillnotorcannotworkinaccordancewiththenewmethodsandatthehigherspeed，mustbedischargedbythemanagement。Themanagementmustalsorecognisethebroadfactthatworkmenwillnotsubmittothismorerigidstandardisationandwillnotworkextrahard，unlesstheyreceiveextrapayfordoingit。"6

Thismakesitclearthat，thoughpartofthelargeroutput，orincreasedspeed，isgotbyimprovedarrangementsormethodsofworkthatneednottaxtheworkers，powers，partofitdoesinvolvetheirworking"extrahard。"

Notonlyabetterdirectionbutalargeramountofenergyisrequiredofthem，withanincreaseofwearandtearandoffatigue。Itisanunsettledpointofgreatimportance，howmuchoftheenlargedoutputcanbeimputedtotheformer，howmuchtothelatter。Evenmoreimportantistheallusioninthepassagejustquotedto"therigidstandardisation"towhichworkmenwillnotsubmit，unlesstheyarewellpaidtodoso。Forthisrigidstandardisationoftheworkinvolvesacorrespondingmechanisationoftheworkmen。Menwhoformerlyexercisedacertainamountofpersonalchoiceinthedetailsoftheirwork，asregardsactionandtime，mustabandonthisfreedomandfollowexactlythemovementsprescribedtothembythetaskmasterwithachartandastop-watch。Hewillprescribetheparticulartaskforeach，thetoolheshalluse，thewayheshalluseit，theintervalsofworkandrest，andwilltakeclosenoteofeveryfailuretoconform。Theliberty，initiative，judgment，andresponsibilityoftheindividualworkmanarereducedtoaminimum。

ThisisadmittedbytheadvocatesofScientificManagement，thoughinaqualifiedmanner。Oneoftheelementsofsuccessissaidtobe:"Analmostequaldivisionoftheworkandresponsibilitybetweentheworkmanandthemanagement。Alldaylongthemanagementworkalmostsidebysidewiththemen，helping，encouragingandsmoothingthewayforthem，whileinthepasttheystoodononeside，gavethemenbutlittlehelp，andthrewontothemtheentireresponsibilityastomethods，implements，speed，andharmoniouscooperation。"7ButinthebroaderdiscussionofthedifferencebetweentheordinarybusinessmethodandScientificManagement，inrelationtothenumerouslittleproblemsthatariseineverykindofwork，wearetoldthat，"theunderlyingphilosophyofthis(ordinary)managementnecessarilyleavesthesolutionofalltheseproblemsinthehandsofeachindividualworkman，whilethephilosophyofScientificManagementplacestheirsolutioninthehandsofthemanagement。"8Elsewhere9itisstatedthatScientificManagement"involvestheestablishmentofmanyrules，laws，andformulaewhichreplacethejudgmentoftheindividualworkman。"

§；4。NowinendeavouringtoapplytothispolicyofScientificManagementastandardofhumanwelfare，weareconfrontedbythreequestions:——

(1)Whatistheeffectofthispolicyuponthehumancostsoflabour？

(2)Howfarwillanyincreaseofhumancostsoflabourbeoffsetbythegreaterhumanutilityofthehigherwagestheyreceive？

(3)Howfarisanybalanceofhumancosts，whichisimposedonspecialclassesofproducers，compensatedbytheincreasedwealthatthedisposalofsocietyatlarge？

ThereissometendencyamongtheadvocatesofScientificManagementtoburkeafulldiscussionoftheseissuesbyassertingthattheirpolicyisonlyafullerandmorerationalapplicationofthatprincipleofdivisionoflabourwhichisbygeneralconsenttheeconomicfoundationofmoderncivilisedsociety。Ifsomesacrificeofindividualfreedominindustrialworkisinvolved，itisassumedtobemorethancompensatedbygainstosocietyinwhicheveryindividual，asamemberofsociety，hashispropershare。

Butwecannotconsentthustorushtheissue。Foritmayturnoutthatthenewmethod，thoughbutastricterandfinerapplicationoftheold，carriesthiseconomysofarthattheincreasedhumancostsimposedupontheproducergrowfasterthanthehumangainswhichtheincreasedproductivityconferseitheruponhimoruponsocietyatlarge。Inotherwords，thehumanindictmentbroughtbythemid-Victorianhumanistsagainstthefactorysystemoftheirdayandrejectedonageneralsurveyoftheeconomicsituation，mightbevalidatedbytheincreasedstandardisationandspecialisationoflabourunderscientificmanagement。Forthoughthedivisionoflabourundermoderncapitalisminallitsbrancheshasnarrowedtherangeofproductiveactivityforthegreatbulkofworkers，asurveyofthoseactivitiesshowsthatwithintheirnarrowingrangetheremayanddoessurviveacertainscopeforskill，judgment，andinitiative，acertainlimitedamountoflibertyindetailedmodesofworkmanship。Moreover，theconditionsofmostorganisedworkformacertaineducationindisciplineandresponsibility。

Itisonlyasmallproportionoftheworkerswhoareconvertedintomereservantsofthemachine。Thoughlargeclassesareengagedinmonotonousroutine，thepacesandthedetailedmovementsarenotrigidlyenforceduponthem。Differentworkmenwillbedoingthesameworkinaslightlydifferentway。

Nowthestandardisationunderthenewmethodisexpresslydesignedsoastoextirpatetheselittlepersonalequationsoflibertyandtoreducethelabouroftheordinaryemployeetoanautomaticperfectionofroutine。

Itis，indeed，contendedbyMr。Taylorthattheknowledgeofeachmanthatheisworkingathishighestpersonalefficiencywillbeasatisfactiontohim，thattheattentionhemustpaytothedetailedordersofthetaskmasterwillevokeintelligenceandresponsibility，andthathisinitiativeinthewayofsuggestingimprovements，whichhashithertobeenprizedasanelementoflibertyandasourceofindustrialprogress，canbeconservedunderscientificmanagement。Butacarefulexaminationoftheillustrationsofthemethodcompelsourrejectionoftheseclaims。Theknowledgeofaroutineworkerthatheisspeededuptohishighestpitchbyamethodwhoseefficiencyisprescribedbyothers，doesnotyieldasenseofpersonalefficiency。Meremeticulousobedienceisnotapropertraininginthedisciplineofa"person"，andaworkmanoperatingundertheseconditionswillnothavethepracticallibertyforthoselittleexperimentsintrialanderroronhisownaccountwhichmakeshissuggestionsofimprovementfruitful。

Mr。Taylor，however，carrieshisdefencesofarastodenyallnarrowingeffectsofsubdivisionoflabourontheworker。Admittingthattheworkmenfrequentlysaywhentheyfirstcomeunderthesystem，"Why，Iamnotallowedtothinkormovewithoutsomeoneinterferingordoingitforme，"heseemstothinkthefollowinganswersatisfactory:——

"Thesamecriticismandobjection，however，canberaisedagainstanyothermodernsubdivisionoflabour。Itdoesnotfollow，forexample，thatthemodernsurgeonisanymorenarroworwoodenamanthantheearlysettlerinthiscountry。Thefrontiersman，however，hadtobenotonlyasurgeon，butalsoanarchitect，house-builder，lumber-man，farmer，soldier，anddoctor，andhehadtosettlehislawsuitswithagun。Youwouldhardlysaythatthelifeofthemodernsurgeonisanymorenarrowingorthatheismoreofawoodenmanthanthefrontiersman。Themanyproblemstobemetandsolvedbythesurgeonarejustasintricateanddifficultandasdevelopingandbroadeningintheirwayaswerethoseofthefrontiersman。"10

Nowastothiswecanonlyreply，firstthatitisuntruethatthesurgeon"slifeonitsproductiveside(theissueunderdiscussion)isasbroadandasvariedasthatofthefrontiersman。Inthesecondplace，evenifweacceptedtheviewthatanarrowfieldofactivityadmittedofasmuchvarietyandinterestasawiderfield，providedlibertyofactionwereequalinthetwo，thatviewisquiteinapplicabletothecaseatissue。Fortherealllibertyofactioninthesubdividedfieldoflabourisexcluded。

§；5。Sofar，then，asinitiative，interest，variation，experiment，andpersonalresponsibilityarefactorsofhumanvalue，qualifyingthehumancostsoflabour，itseemsevidentthatScientificManagementinvolvesalossorinjurytotheworkers。Arethere，however，anypersonalconsiderations，apartfromwages，thatmaybetakenasanoffset？Supposethatworkerscanbefoundofadullydocilecharacterwithalargesupplyofbrutemuscularenergy，willanyharmbedonethembyutilisingthemtocarrypig-ironortoshovelearthunder"scientific"supervision？Mr。Taylorhasaninterestingpassagebearingonthisquestion:"Nowoneoftheveryfirstrequirementsforamanwhoisfittohandlepig-ironasaregularoccupationisthatheshallbesostupidandsophlegmaticthathemorenearlyresemblesinhismentalmake-uptheoxthananyothertype。"11Theseox-likemen，itmaybeheld，donotreallysufferanyinjury，undergoanyhumancost，byhavingnoopportunityfurnishedthemforexercisingfacultiesandactivitiesofmindwhichtheydonotpossessandareunlikelytoacquire。Ifthen，ineverygradeofworkers，therearetobefoundenoughmenwhoappeardestinedbynatureforarigidlymechanicaltaskconductedunderservileconditions，itmaybethoroughlysoundsocialeconomytoputthemtoperformalllabourofsuchkindasisrequiredforthesupplyofhumanneeds。

Thisisaproblemofappliedpsychology，orofpsycho-physiology。ProfessorMü；nsterberg，inarecentvolume，12makesacontributiontowardsitssolution，andtowardsafinerartofScientificManagementthanthatwhichhasbeenevolvedbybusinessmen。Forsinceallindustryprimarilyinvolvesthevoluntaryorderedapplicationofhumanfacultiestomanualandmentalactions，thepsychologistmustbeinapositiontogiveimportantadviceinalleconomicoperations。Forhealoneisqualifiedbyscientificteststodiscoverandestimatethevariousmentalcapacitieswhichcountforsuccessinindustry，toascertainhowtheycooperateandconflict，andhowtheymaybebestappliedtotheperformanceofthevariousoperationsineachprocess。Attention，memory，ideas，imagination，feeling，volition，suggestibility，abilitytolearn，abilitytodiscriminate，judgment，space-sense，time-sense，andothermentalqualities，enterinvaryingmeasuresasfactorsofindustrialability。Economicpsychologymay，itiscontended，increasetheefficiencyofindustryinthreeways。

"Weaskhowwecanfindthemenwhosementalqualitiesmakethembestfittedfortheworktheyhavetodo；secondly，underwhatpsychologicalconditionswecansecurethegreatestandmostsatisfactoryoutputofworkfromeveryman；andfinally，howwecanproducemostcompletelytheinfluencesonhumanmindswhicharedesiredintheinterestsofbusiness。Inotherwords，weaskhowtofindthebestpossibleman，howtoproducethebestpossiblework，andhowtosecurethebestpossibleeffects。"13

Thefirstoftheseservices，fittingthemantothejob，involvesadoublepsychologicalenquiry，firstintothevocationalneeds，andsecondlyintothepersonalabilityofeachapplicanttomeettheseneeds。Wemustexaminethetasktolearnwhatcombinationofmentalqualitiesintheemployeeisrequiredtodoitwell，andwemustexamineeachapplicantforsuchworktolearnwhetherhepossessestherequisitequalities。

Twoillustrationswillservetoindicatewhatismeant。Theproblemofselectingfitmotor-menforelectricrailwayswasbroughttoProfessorMü；nsterberg"sattention。Todrivefastandatthesametimeavoidaccidentsweretherequirementsofthecompanies。Fitnessforthispurposehefoundtocentreinasinglementalprocess:——

"Ifoundthistobeaparticularcomplicatedactofattentionbywhichthemanifoldnessofobjects，thepedestrians，thecarriages，andtheautomobiles，arecontinuouslyobservedwithreferencetotheirrapidityanddirectioninthequickly-changingpanoramaofthestreets。Movingfigurescomefromtherightandfromthelefttowardsandacrossthetrack，andareembeddedinastreamofmenandvehicleswhichmovesparalleltothetrack。Inthefaceofsuchmanifoldnesstherearemenwhoseimpulsesarealmostinhibitedandwhoinstinctivelydesiretowaitforthemovementofthenearestobjects；

theywouldevidentlybeunfitforservice，astheywoulddrivetheelectriccarfartooslowly。Thereareotherswho，evenwiththecaratfullspeed，canadjustthemselvesforatimetothecomplexmovingsituation，butwhoseattentionsoonlapses，andwhiletheyarefixatingaratherdistantcarriage，mayoverlookapedestrianwhocarelesslycrossesthetrackimmediatelyinfrontofthiscar。Inshort，wehaveagreatvarietyofmentaltypesofthischaracteristicunifiedvarietywhichmaybeunderstoodasaparticularcombinationofattentionandimagination。"14

Anapparatuswasdevised，representingthepsychologicalconditionsinvolvedintheactualproblem，notamereminiature，butanadaptationwhichshouldcalloutandtestthesamementalqualities。Anumberofactualmotor-menwerethencarefullyexaminedintheworkingofthisapparatussoastotesttheamountsofspeedandaccuracyandtherelationbetweenthetwo。Quantitativeestimateswerethusreachedoffitnessinworkingtheapparatus，valuesbeingassignedrespectivelytospeedandaccuracy。

Inthiswayapsychologicalstandardoffitnesswasattained，suchaswouldbeavailableforselectingapplicantsforthemotorservice。Soinship-service，whereeverythingmayturnuponpromptandaccuratehandlingofasuddencomplicatedemergency。Shipofficersarefoundwhomasuddendangerparalyses，orkeepsvacillatinguntilitistoolate。Others，feelingonlytheurgencyofpromptaction，jumptoatoohastydecision。Thedesirabletypeis"themenwhointheunexpectedsituationquicklyreviewthetotalityofthefactorsintheirrelativeimportanceandwithalmostinstinctivecertaintyimmediatelycometothesamedecisiontowhichtheywouldhavearrivedaftergreatthought。"15Hereagainitwaspossibletoconductaseriesofexperiments，testingthementalprocessesandmeasuringthedegreesofrapidity，correctness，andconstancy。

Othertestscanbeappliedforthequalitiesdesirableinsuchworkasthetelephoneservice，inwhichmemory，attention，intelligence，exactitude，andrapidityareinvolved。Sometimesthementalqualitiescanbeseparatelytested，sometimestheirinter-relationissuchastorequireasimultaneoustesting。

§；6。Itisequallyobviousthatagooddealcanbedonetoincreasetheproductiveefficiencyofthosewhohavebeenselectedforanywork，bymethodsofteachingthatinvolvepsychologicalguidance。Inlearningsuchprocessesastypewritingandtelegraphy，forinstance，muchcanbeachievedbytechnicaladjustmentsofmovementsuchaswehavealreadydescribed，andbyconsideredadaptationsofmachineandmaterialstosuithumanfaculties。

Butmethodsofimprovingmemoryandsecuringamoreregularandaccurateattention，ofincreasing，therapidityofrepeatedactionswiththeleastnervouswearandtear，ofeducatingdelicacyoftouchandsightforspecificpurposes，theutilisationofrhythmictendencies，theproperbalanceofintervalsofworkandrest，theinfluenceofimitationandsocialcooperationinganglabour，andfinallytheeffectsofdifferentquantitiesandmodesofremunerationinevokingandmaintainingthevariousfactorsofefficiency——allsuchconsiderationsofferafruitfulfieldforpsychologicalinvestigation。

Hencepsychology，itisurged，cancontributegreatlytoproductivitybyfindingthebestmanforeachjobandadjustinghismentalequipmenttoconditionsofworkwhichintheirturncanbemodifiedtofithispowers。

But，regardingproductionasdesignedtosatisfyhumandemands，psychologycanbeutilisedalsotoassistingettingtherightquantitiesandqualitiesofgoodstotherightpersons。Commercialorganisationexistsforthispurpose。Itdoesstudythewantsanddemandsofconsumers。Butitmightdosowithmore"science"。ProfessorMü；nsterbergmakesanexceedinglyinterestingstudyoftheartsofadvertisingandofsellingoverthecounter，toillustratehowmuchmightbedonebysubstitutingexperimentallawsforinstinctiveandtraditionalpractices。Onecommentuponthisapplicationofhisscience，however，iscalledfor。Thoughthesocial-economicviewwouldobligethepsychologisttoapproachthesubjectspecificallyfromthestandpointoftheconsumerandthepsychologyofsatisfactionsinhisstandardofcomfort，ProfessorMü；nsterbergvirtuallyconfineshimselftothepsychologyofcommerceandofmarketingregardedfromthestandpointofthemanufacturerormerchant。

Thuspsychologycanbemadetodeviseandprescribeeconomiesofhumanpowerinindustry，which，likethetechnicalimprovementsofScientificManagement，wouldseemtoincreasegreatlytheproductivityofindustry，turningoutlargerquantities，andperhapsbetterqualities，ofgoods，withthesameamountoflabour。

§；7。Whatwouldbethehumanvaluationoftheseprocessesofscientificeconomy？Assumingthatthiseconomyfructifiesinanenlargingvolumeofwealth，itwouldappeartobeaccompaniedbyanincreaseofwelfare，unlessthehumancostsoflabourwerecorrespondinglyincreased，orthedistributionofthelargervolumeofwealthweremadesomuchmoreunequalthatitfurnishedasmallervolumeofutilityinitsconsumption。Neitherofthesequalificationsis，indeed，excludedbythetermsoftheeconomy。ForeachstrokeofScientificManagementisprimarilyjustifiedasaprofit-makingdevice，advantageoustothecapitalist-employerinaparticularbusiness。Itenableshimtoturnoutgoodsatalowerlabour-costandsotomakealargermarginofprofitontheirsale。Ifwesupposethiseconomytobeofwideorgeneraladoption，itwouldbeequivalenttoanall-roundincreaseinthetechnicalefficiencyoflabour。Unlesswesupposetheaggregatequantityofproductiontobeafixedquantity(asuppositionnotinaccordancewithexperience)，itwouldseemtofollowthatatleastaslargeaquantityofthismoreefficientlabourwouldbeemployedinturningoutanincreasedvolumeofgoods。Inthatevent，itwouldbepossiblethattheworkers，aswellasthecapitalistemployers，shouldenjoyahigherrateofremuneration。Whethertheywoulddoso，however，andtowhatextent，seemsquiteuncertain。ForthoughthepaymentofaconsiderablebonusinadditiontocurrentwageswasnecessaryintheexperimentsdescribedbyMr。Taylor，inordertoevokefromaparticulargroupofworkerssubmissiontothenewtermsofwork，itdoesnotfollowthat，onceadoptedbyallemployersinthetrade，themethodwouldentailorevenpermitacontinuanceofthishigherpay。Forthepioneerfirmadmittedlypaysthebonuspartlyinordertoovercomethepainsandscruplesofworkerssubjectedtoaspeeding-upsystem。Ifitdidnotpayabonus，theworkerswouldquitthisemploymentforsomeotherthatwasopentothem。Butifnootheremploymentupontheoldtermswereopen，thispartofthebonusmightbeunnecessaryasaninducement。

Eventhatpartofthebonuswhichseemstobedirectedtostimulatetheambitionandenergyoftheindividualworker，andtobreakupthehabitualslacknessofthegroupanditsregulationstroke，wouldseemtostandonaprecariousfooting，whenthenewmethodofworkwasoncewellestablishedanditselfbecameahabit。Onlythatpart，ifany，ofthebonus，orhigherwage，whichwasnecessarytoreplacethegreatermuscularornervouswearandtearofthespeeded-upandmoreautomaticwork，wouldnecessarilysurvive。

Itwouldstandasanecessarycostofproduction。If，however，asMr。TaylorandProfessorMü；nsterbergappeartohold，thescientificmanagementneedentailnosuchadditionalwearandtear，thereseemsnogroundforholdingthat，afterthemethodbecamegeneral，anybonustotheworkerswouldbenecessary。Andifitwereunnecessary，itwouldnot，indeedundercompetitivetermscouldnot，bepaid。Onthishypothesis，theadditionalwealthcreatedbytheimprovedefficiencyofthesystemmightgoentirelytocapital。Indeed，sofarasthedeterminationwerelefttoindividualbargaining，thisresultwouldappearalmostinevitable。Forthegreateraverageefficiencyoflabourwouldbeequivalenttoalargersupplyoflabour(thoughitmightalsomeanabetterquality)，andsincenoimmediateorcorrespondingincreaseofdemandforlabourneedaccrue，thepriceperunitoflabourwouldfall。Thiswouldmeanthatthelabourerwouldgetnohigherpaymentforhishigherproductivity。Eveniftheincreasingrateandamountofprofitsbroughtincreasedsavingandlargermassesofcompetingcapital，itwouldstillseemdoubtfulwhethertheaggregatedemandforlabourwouldbefoundtokeeppacewiththegrowthofthesupplywhichscientificmanagementpluspsychologicalselectionwouldyield。

Though，therefore，theaggregateproductincreased，itremainsdoubtfulwhetheranyconsiderableshareoftheincreasemustorwouldgotolabour。

Butsupposethatorganisationoflabourorsocialinterventionwereabletosecuresomeconsiderableriseofrealwagesfromtheenlargedproduct，sothatasconsumerstheworkerswerebetteroff，thehumanvalueoftheprocessisnotyetestablished。Tworelatedquestionsstillremainforsettlement。First，thatalreadytentativelyraised，thequestionwhethertheworkersmaynotsuffermorefromincreasedhumancostsofproductionunderthenewscientificré；gimethantheygaininhumanutilitiesofconsumption。Someofthe"science"initsapplicationwouldindeedappeartobewhollybeneficial。Theimprovedmethodsofselectingandoftraininglabour，soastogetthebestmanforeachjob，andtoenablehimtodohisworkinthebestway，ispuregain，providedthatbestwaydoesnotundulystrainhisenergyordullhismind。Otherelementsofappliedpsychologyaremoredoubtfulintheirneteffect。Thepracticesofscientificadvertisingandofsuggestivesellinghaveverylittleprovedutilityandarenearlyaslikelytobeappliedtoforcethewrongarticlesonthewrongpurchasersastodistributewealthalongthelinesofitsmaximumutilityforconsumption。

Thepersonsengagedforalivelihoodinpalmingoffgoodsonapublicirrespectiveofanyintrinsicmeritstheycontain，payaheavytollincharacterfortheworktheyarecalledupontodo。

§；8。But，turningtothemainproblem，thereremainstheissueoftheincreasedmechanisation，orstandardisation，oftheworkerunderScientificManagement。Admittingthatacertainamountofsubdivisionoflabour，andofdiminishingvariety，interestandinitiative，accruingtherefrom，isjustifiedinahumansensebythebenefitsofenhancedproduction，isthereanylimittothiseconomy，andiftherebe，isthatlimittransgressedunderScientificManagement？Thequestiondoesnotadmitperhapsofanygeneralorcertainanswer。Supposeitbeadmitted，asIthinkitmust，thateveryapplicationofthisScientificManagementdoessqueezeoutofthelabour-daysomehumaninterest，somecalluponinitiative，reason，judgment，responsibility，survivingunderpreviousconditionseveninthemostroutineandsubdividedtoil，mustwenecessarilyregardthislossasaheavyincreasedhumancostoflabour？Surelyitdependsupontheparticularlabourinquestion。Insome，perhapsmost，branchesofheavyroutinetoil，theshredsofhumaninterest，thecallsonpersonality，areusuallysotriflingthatitseemsabsurdtotakethemintomuchaccount。Theworkofcarryingpig-iron，orofshovellingcontinuallythesamematerial，containssolittlescopefortheplayofinitiative，responsibility，etc。，thatanysuchregimentationasisdescribedcanhardlybesaidtodamagethequalityoftheworkorthecharacteroftheworkerasaffectedbyhiswork。

Ifahigherefficiencyandalargeroutputcanenableasmallernumberofworkmentobekeptonlabourofsolowagrade，thereoughttobeanetsocialgain。Butthereisanothercompensationpossibleforanylossofliberty，orincreaseofmonotony，involvedinScientificManagement。

Ifitbeaccompaniedbyashorteningofthehoursoflabour，thedamageinflictedbytherigourofmechanicaldisciplinemaybecompensatedbyalargerleisure。Thiscompensation，ofcourse，isreducedorevennullified，ifthegreaterintensityoflabourintheshorterdaytakesmoreoutoftheman，asoftenhappens，thanwastakenoutbefore。But，assumingthatthisisnotthecase，andthatforalongerdullroutinework-dayissubstitutedashorterbutevenmoremechanicalday，anetgainforlabourisstillpossible。IamdisposedtoholdthatagoodcasemightbemadeoutforScientificManagementasregardsthoseordersofroutinelabourwhich，asordinarilycarriedon，containverylittleinterestorhumanity。Eventhen，however，thereisadangerthatdeservesattention。Ifthisregimentationcanreducethecostperunitofdull，heavymusculartoil，asislikely，itmaypreventthediscoveryandapplicationofwhollymechanicalsubstitutesforthiswork。

Butthehumaneconomyisfarmoredoubtfulinthecaseoflabourwhich，thoughsubdividedandmainlyofaroutinecharacter，stillcontainsamarginforthedisplayofskill，initiativeandjudgment。Toremovethesequalitiesaltogetherfromsuchworkandtovestthem，asisproposed，notevenintheoverseers，butinalittlecliqueofscientificexperts，wouldmeantheconversionoflargebodiesofskilled，intelligentworkersintoautomaticdrudges。Thelifeandcharacterofthesemenwouldsufferasaninevitablereactionofthisdrudgery，anditisdoubtfulwhetherasomewhatshortenedwork-dayandsomewhathigherwageswouldcompensatesuchdamage。Whilewemayrecognisethegeneraldesirabilityofdivisionandspecialisationoflabour，somedetailedlibertyandflexibilityshouldbelefttotheworker。

§；9。Indeed，werethefullrigourofScientificManagementtobeappliedthroughoutthestapleindustries，notonlywouldthehumancostsoflabourappeartobeenhanced，butprogressintheindustrialartsitselfwouldprobablybedamaged。ForthewholestrainofprogresswouldbethrownupontheScientificManagementandtheconsultingpsychologist。Thelargeassistancegiventotechnicalinventionbytheobservationandexperimentsofintelligentworkmen，theconstantflowofsuggestionfordetailedimprovements，wouldcease。Theelementsofcreativeworkstillsurvivinginmostroutinelabourwoulddisappear。Ontheonehand，therewouldbesmallbodiesofefficienttaskmasterscarefullyadministeringtheordersofexpertmanagers，ontheother，largemassesofphysicallyefficientbutmentallyinertexecutivemachines。Thoughtheproductivityofexistingindustrialprocessesmightbegreatlyincreasedbythiseconomy，thefutureofindustrialprogressmightbeimperilled。Fornotonlywouldtheartsofinventionandimprovementbeconfinedtothefew，butthemechanisationofthegreatmassofworkmenwouldrenderthemlesscapableofadaptingtheirlabourtoanyothermethodthanthattowhichtheyhadbeendrilled。Again，suchautomatismintheworkerswouldreactinjuriouslyupontheircharacterasconsumers，damagingtheircapacitytogetfullhumangainoutofanyhigherremunerationthattheymightobtain。Itwouldalsoinjurethemascitizens，disablingthemfromtakinganintelligentpartintheartsofpoliticalself-government。

Forindustrialservitudeisinimicaltopoliticalliberty。Itwouldbecomeevenmoredifficultthannowforamajorityofmen，accustomedintheirwork-daytomechanicalobedience，tostandupintheircapacityofcitizensagainsttheirindustrialrulerswhen，asoftenhappensuponcriticaloccasions，politicalinterestscorrespondwitheconomiccleavages。

IwouldnotdogmatiseuponthenecessityofthesehumandisadvantagesofScientificManagement。Themorerigorousroutineofthework-daymightbeadequatelycompensatedbyshorterhours，higherwages，increasedopportunitiesforeducation，recreation，andhomelife。Buttherecanbenosecurityforadequatecompensationsoftheseordersunderascientificmanagementdirectedprimarilybyprivateprofit-makingmotives。Forthereisnoguaranteethatthelargerprofitstoabusinessfirmdonotentailadamagetoitsemployees，notoffsetbythebonuswhichtheymayobtain。Norhavewetherequiredsecuritythatanysocialgaininthewayofincreasedproductandlowerpricesmaynotbecancelledbythehumaninjuryinflicteduponlargebodiesofworkersandcitizensbythemoremechanicalandservileconditionsoftheirlabour。

§；10。Alittlereflectionwillmakeitclearthatthecompletesuccessofsuchabusinesseconomywouldinvolveacorresponding"science"

onthesideofconsumption。Thestandardisedworkeroughtalsotobeastandardisedconsumer。Fortheregularreliableconformityofworkmustinvolveasimilarconformityindietandinotherhabitsoflife。Ifthe"scientificmanager"werethefullownerofhisworkmen，itwouldevidentlybeafunctionofhissciencetoworkoutexperimentally，withtheassistanceofthebio-psychologist，thecheapestandbestwayoflivingforeachparticulartradeandtypeofworker。Hewoulddiscoverandprescribetheprecisecombinationoffoods，themosthygienicclothingandhousing，themostappropriaterecreationsandthe"bestbooks"foreachclass，withaviewtotheproductiveefficiencyofitsmembers。Hewouldencouragebybonuseseugenic，anddiscouragebyfinesdysgenesicmarriagesamonghisemployees。Sofarasintelligentemployersareinapositiontodetermineortoinfluencetheexpenditureofthewagestheypayandthegeneralconductofthelivesoftheiremployeesoutsidetheworkinghours，theyaredisposedtopracticethispolicy。Wheretheyaretheownersofthetownorvillageinwhichtheworkersfinditmostconvenienttolive，theycanoftendosowithconsiderableeffect。

Philanthropicmotivesareoftencombinedwithbusinessmotives，andthecombinationmayoftenbegenuinelyconducivetothehumanwelfareofthecommunity。Temperance，sanitation，andhygiene，educationalandrecreativeopportunitiesmaybemadeavailable。Certainregulations，chieflyofaprohibitorynature，regardingtheuseofalcohol，betting，ormarriage，areimposedbysomeemployersasconditionsofemployment。Suchinterferencesoutsidethehoursoflabourare，however，exceptionalandaregenerallyjustifiedonspecialgroundsofeconomicsafetyandefficiency。

§；11。Butanaltogetherwiderissueisopenedupintheclaims，notoftheparticularemployerbutofindustrialsocietytoimposeorevokestandardsofconsumptionscientificallyadjustedtothevariousgradesofindustrialefficiency。Ifweregardanationasaneconomicsociety，puttingoutproductiveenergyinwealth-creation，itbecomesevidentthatsciencehasmuchtosay，andcanhavemore，regardingtheexpenditureofincomesandtheconsequentconsumptionofwealth。Thescienceofscientificmanagement，withallitspsycho-physicalapparatusformeasuringresults，canbeappliedtostandardsoflivingforindividualsandfamilies。ThebeginningsofthisideaarefoundinthedistinctionwhichfiguredsolargelyintheclassicalPoliticalEconomybetweenproductiveandunproductiveconsumption。ThediscussionsofArthurYoung，Edenandothers，regardingtherespectivemeritsofwheatandoatmeal，beerandtea，asingredientsofworking-classdiet，weredirectedavowedlybythisconceptionofeconomy。

Agoodfoodwasonethatyieldedmoremuscularenergyorenduranceperpennyofexpenditure。Themoreenlighteneddoctrineknownas"theeconomyofhighwages"wasearlyrecommendedbyphilanthropistslikeRobertOwen，orbusinessmenlikeMr。Brassey，onthescoreofexperimentsrelatingtothelargeroutputoflabour-powerwhichhigherwageswithbetterfeedingrenderedpossible。Buttherewasno"science"worthmentioninthesecrudeexperiments。Onlywithinrecentyears，withtheadvanceoforganicchemistryandphysiology，hasthe"science"ofdieteticsbeguntoemerge，analysingthevariousfoodsandassigningthemtheirvaluesasproducersoftissueandofenergy。Wearenowtoldthequantitiesofproteids，carbohydratesandfatscontainedinvariousfoods，anddietariesbasedupontheseanalysesareprescribedfordifferentsortsofworkers，andfordifferentagesofmembersofafamily。Atpresentthesciencedoesnotpretendtoanylargeamountofaccuracy，indeedwidedivergencesstillexistinitsveryfoundations。

Butthereisnoreasontodoubtthatfurtheranalysisandexperimentationmaybeabletoreachfoodstandardswhichontheconsumptionsidewillcorrespondtotheeconomyofstandardmethodsofworkunderscientificmanagement。Itmaybequitepossibletolaydownwithconsiderableexactitudetheamountsandcombinationsandintervalsoffoodforcoal-miners，weavers，clerks，motor-men，etc。，togetherwithestimatesoftheamountofexpenditurerequiredtomaintainthedifferentformsofindustrialefficiency。Theproductivevalueofotherelementsofthewage-earner"sexpenditurewillnotindeedadmitofsomuchexactitude，partlybecausehisown"utility"

obtainedfromsuchexpenditurewillnoteasilybeseparablefromthatofhisfamily。Butthoughfamilyexpenditurecannotthusberegardedasexclusivelydirectedbyproductiveconsiderations，thephysicalefficiencywhichisitschieftestmayberegardedprimarilyasanindustrialasset。Indeed，thisviewisimplicitinmosttalkofstandardsofcomfortandinmostdiscussionsofa"minimum"or"living"or"subsistence"wage。Itmeanssuchwageas，economicallyexpended，willenableawage-earnertorearanaveragefamilyinthatmeasureandkindofefficiencyrequiredtodoworkofasortsimilartothatbywhichheearnsthewage。Nodoubtthisnotionistemperedbysomeslightconsiderationsofeducationandofbetterment。

Butproductiveefficiencyisalwaysthebasicfactor。Foodandhousing，byfarthemostimportantelementsinworking-classexpenditure，areclearlyinprocessofbeingstandardisedbyhygienicsintheserviceofascienceofproductiveconsumption。

§；12。Twoothersciences，bywhichsocietymayseektostandardisethelivesofworkers，areeugenicsandeducation。Inbothofthesethehumanistsmayhaveafiercebattletofightagainstthedominionoftheindustrialists。Eugenics，ifitcangetrecognitionasasocialart，willregulatemarriageforthepurposesofgoodstock。Butgoodforwhat？Perhapsforindustryandwar，ifsomespecialistsshouldhavetheirway。Sotoowitheducation。Primaryeducationhasalreadybeenear-markedinourtownsfortheproductionofcheapclerks，andtechnicalandprofessionaltrainingundervariousguisesinvadeourcitadelsofhigherlearning。Allispartofthesamegreatclaimofsocietytoeconomiseandstandardisethebodyandthemindofitscitizen，primarilyinorderthathemaydomoreefficientlythesocialorroutineservicesitrequiresofhim。

Thiseconomicstandardisation，aswerecognise，isnotidenticalinmotivesorinoperationasitbearsrespectivelyupontheproductiveandconsumptivefunctions。Onitsproductivesideitisregulatedbyconsiderationsofprivatebusinessprofits。Itsprimaryaimistogetmentoworkinsuchawayastoproducethelargestmarginbetweenthewagenecessarytoevokefullefficiencyunder"scientificmanagement"andthemarketvalueoftheoutput。Indirectly，itisclaimed，thispolicyredoundstotheadvantageofindustrialsocietyinanincreaseofthebodyofconsumablewealth，someconsiderableshareofwhichwillpassintothegeneralstore。Onitsconsumptivesidethescientificstandardisationworksdifferently。Itispliedmoredirectlyasasocial-economicart，workingoutforthefamily，aswellasfortheindividualworkman，astandardofliving，physical，intellectual，andmoral，conducivetotheinterestsofsocietyregardedasaneconomicorwealth-producingentity。16Butthoughsociety，inthusseekingtosecurestandardsofeconomicefficiencyforitsfamilyunits，isnotdirectlyconcernedinfurtheringtheprofit-seekingendsofprivatebusinessfirms，indirectlyitisdoingso。For，solongasexpenditureofincome，orfamilybudgets，areestimatedstrictlyinaccordancewiththeeconomicefficiencytheyyieldtothepresentandprospectiveworkingmembers，theprocessisinrealitysupplementarytothescienceofbusinessmanagement。Forthebetterbirth，betterrearing，betterhealthandeducationwhichitfurnishes，willalleventuallybetranslatedintolargerquantityandbetterqualityoflabour-powerforscientificmanagementtohandleinitsvariousprofit-makingprocesses。

Nowthethoughtfulmembersoftheworking-classeshavealwayshalf-instinctivelyregardedwithsomesuspiciontheendeavoursofsocialreformerstomakethemusecheaperfoodsyieldingmorenutrimentforthemoney，temperancemovementstokeepdowntheirconventionalnecessaries，andtechnicaleducationtomaketheirlabour-powermoreproductive。Fortheyhavedoubtedwhetherthecheaperlivingortheincreasedproductivitywouldnecessarilycomehometotheminimprovedconditionsoflife。Norhastheirsuspicionbeenwhollygroundless。Thoughinthelongrun，itmightseemtofollowthatasconsumersandevenperhaps，thoughlesssurely，aswage-earners，theywouldgetsomegainfromthemoreeconomicaluseoftheirlabour-powers，thebulkofthevisiblegainsmightverywellpassintothehandsoftheemployingclassesinhigherprofitsorsalariesofmanagement。

ThisconsiderationopensthedeepercriticismwhichhumanismandSociologyareentitledandrequiredtopressuponthepolicyoftheindustrialeconomists。

Everyimprovementinthetechniqueoftheartsofindustryorofconsumptionmaybeconsideredasconducivetoeconomicprogress，yieldinganincreaseofmarketablewealth。But，ifsuchimprovementsincreasethehumancostsofproduction，ordiminishthehumanutilitiesofconsumption，asmayhappeniftheyconsistlargelyinthestandardisingofproductiveandconsumptiveprocesses，theymaybringnoincrease，possiblymaybringadecrease，ofhumanwelfare。Proposalsforscientificmanagementorforstandardiseddietariesarenotindeedtobecondemned，uponthegeneralapplicationofsuchcriticism。Foritisagreedthatsuchstandardisationwithincertainlimitsissociallyadvantageous。Thequestion，therefore，ispartlyoneofdegree，partlyastothesecuritythereexiststhattheeconomicgainsoftheimprovedeconomyshallbeproperlyapportioned。

§；13。Butthefinaltestwouldnotconsistindeterminingwhetherincreasedcostsanddiminishedutilitiesdidordidnotoffsettheprimafacieadvantagesoftheeconomicimprovements。Theartofsocialwelfare，humanism，willinsistuponconsideringthereactionsofthestandardisationofworkandconsumptionuponotherfacultiesandfunctionsthantheeconomic，andinconsideringprospectiveaswellaspresentgains。Ascientificrigourineconomyofworkandofexpenditure，whichshouldremove，bothfromtheindustryandthelivesofthegreatmassesofapopulation，allopportunitiesforinitiative，experiment，risk-takingandthedisplayofpersonality，mightreducethehumanvalueoflifefortheaverageman，andsoimpairtheworthofthesociety。Humanism，therefore，whileapprovingtheapplicationofsciencetotheartsofproductionandconsumption，insiststhatitshallbeshowntobetheservantnotthemasterofhumanity。Suchproofissought，becausetheassumption，sooftenmade，thatallsucheconomicprogressmustbehumanlyprofitable，isseentobeunwarranted。

A"scientific"viewofhumanindustrywouldestablishthefollowinglinesofinvestigation。

(1)Theproductiveabilityofeachproducerwouldbeconsideredinrelationtoitstechnicalefficiency，i。e。，thebestwayforhimtodohisjob。

(2)Hisspecialproductivefunctionwouldbeconsideredinitsreactions(a)uponhisgeneralstandardoflifeonitseconomicside，i。e。，inrelationtohisproductiveandconsumptivefunctions；(b)uponhisindividualhumanlife。

(3)Thestandardofconsumptionofeachconsumerwouldbeconsideredinrelationtoitstechnicalefficiency(a)forpurposesofproduction；

(b)forpurposesofindividualwelfare。

(4)Industryasasocialfunctionwouldbesubjectedtocriticismfromthewiderstandpointofsocialwelfare，i。e。，asoneelementcontributingtothelifeofanation。