第13章

1。AdamSmith，byopeninghisWealthofNationswithadissertationupontheeconomyofdivisionoflabour，withoutexplainingthatthiseconomyrestsuponapriorconceptionofcooperation，unwittinglyassistedtosetEnglishPoliticalEconomyuponawrongfoundation。

2。Eventhismeasureofworking-classprogresshasbeencheckedduringthelastdecade。RecentstatisticsshowthatinGreatBritainandinmostotherWesterncivilisedcountries，theriseofpricessince1896andstillmoresince1905hasnotbeenattendedbyacorrespondingriseofwages，thoughprofitsandrateofinteresthaverisenatleastequallywithprices。

3。Theordinaryprofit-sharingschemeisvitiated，alikeintheoryandinpractice，bytheerroneousattributionoftheconcept"profit"tothatwhichis"shared。"Thisisrecognisedatoncewhentheexperimentisproperlydescribed。Fortheordinaryprofit-sharingschemebeginsbylayingdownanormalrateofwagesandofprofits，baseduponcurrentfactsofcommerce。Theprovisionforthisstandardwageandstandardprofitconstitutesafirstchargeuponthetakingsofthebusiness。Undernormalconditionsthiswouldabsorbthewhole。Buttheworkersarenowtoldthat，iftheyproduceanadditionalincome，theyshallhaveinextrawageshalfofit。

Nowthewholeofthisadditionalincomeisduetotheincreasedefficiencyoflabourunderthenewstimulus。Forifanymorecapitalthanbeforeisrequired，provisionforitspaymentatthenormalrateismadebeforeaccountistakenoftheso-calledprofitthatisshared。Nomoreabilityoreffortofsuperintendenceisrequired；infactitisusuallycontendedthatthegreatercaretakenbytheworkersrenderslesssupervisionnecessary。Thus"profit"isamisnomerforwhatis"shared。"Forthisso-called"profit"

isentirelyproducedbygreaterintensity，skillorcareonthepartoflabour。Thefactthatlabourgetsonlyhalf，andthatonlyafterthewholeofwhatshouldbecalledthedeferred"wage-fund"hasservedtomeetanydeficiencyinthesumrequiredtopaythenormaldividends，explainswhymostoftheseschemesfailafterashorttrial。Theproportionoftheextra-product(evokedentirelybytheincreasedstimulusappliedtolabour)，thatisactuallypaidtolabour，istoosmalltomaintaintheefficiencyofthestimulus。Whentheseprofit-sharingschemessucceed，thesuccessisnearlyalwaystraceabletothefactthatintheoriginalagreement，thebenevolentemployerhasfixedhisrateofinterestorsalary，orboth，uponalowerscalethaniscurrentinthetrade，sothatthestimulustolabouriseffective。

4。BuildingSocietiesareonlyinaveryrestrictedsensecooperative。

5。In1909theaggregatesalesattheRetailStoresamountedto£；70，423，359，orabout10%oftheworking-classincome，andtheprofit(includinginterestpaidonshares)was£；10，851，739。CHAPTERXVII:THENATIONANDTHEWORLD

§；1。Wehaveexaminedthechiefdefectsinthestructureofabusinessandatrade，regardedinthelightofinstrumentsofhumanwelfare，andwehaveconsideredsomeoftheremedies，appliedsometimesforpurposesofdistinctivelyindustrialeconomy，sometimesasdevicesofsocialtherapeutics。

Thereremains，however，oneothermodeofeconomicantagonismdeservingofconsideration。Untilmoderntimesanationwastoallintentsandpurposesnotonlyapoliticalbutaneconomicarea，inthesensethatalmostalltradeandothereconomicrelationswereconfinedwithinthenationallimit。

Thesmalldimensionsofforeign，ascomparedwithdomestictrade，andthenatureofthattrade，confinedtoarticlesnotproducedathome，hadlittletendencytogenerateafeelingofinternationalrivalry。Foreigntradewasalmostwhollycomplementaryandnotcompetitive。Withthemodernchanges，whichhavealteredthisconditionandmadenationsappeartobehostilecompetitorsinworldcommerce，weareallfamiliar。ThedevelopmentofcapitalistproductiontoacommonlevelandalongsimilarlinesinanumberofWesternnations，thetendencytowardsanincreaseofoutputofmanufacturedgoodsatapriceexceedingthedemandsoftheexistingmarkets，theconsequentinvasionofthemarketsofeachindustrialcountrybythegoodsofothercountries，andthegrowingcompetitionofthegroupsoftradersineachnationtosecureanddevelopnewmarketsinthebackwardcountries，withtheassistanceofthephysicalandmilitaryforcesoftheirrespectivegovernments，haveimposeduponthepopularmindapowerfulimpressionofeconomicoppositionbetweennations。

Nofalserandmoredisastrousdelusionprevailsinourtime。TheonlyfactswhichseemtogivesupporttoitaretheTariffs，CommercialTreatiesandtheoccasionalusesofpoliticalpressureandmilitaryforcebyStatesforthebenefitoffinanciers，investors，tradersorsettlersbelongingtotheirnationality。Thisinterventionofgovernmentsforthesupposedadvantageoftheircitizenshashadtheunfortunateeffectofpresentingnationsinthewhollyfalsepositionofrivalbusinessfirms。Groupsofprivatemanufacturers，tradersandfinanciers，usingtheirgovernmenttosecuretheirprivateprofitableends，havethusproducedgraveconflictsofinternationalpolicy。Theworstinstrumentofthisantagonism，becausethemostobviousandthemostvexatious，istheprotectiveTariff，andthemostsingularproofofitsderationalisingefficacyisfoundintheconductofourrecentfiscalcontroversy。Thefiercestfightinallthatcontroversyhasragedroundtherelativesize，growthandprofitablecharacteroftheforeigntradeofGreatBritain，Germany，America，etc。

TheseStatesareactuallytreated，notmerelybyProtectionistsbutbymanyFreeTraders，asiftheyweregreattradingfirms，engagedinstrugglingagainstoneanotherfortheexclusivepossessionofsomelimitedeconomicterritory，thesuccessofonebeingattendedbyalosstotheothers。Now，GreatBritain，GermanyandAmericaarenoteconomicentitiesatall；theyarenotengagedinworldcommerce，eitherascompetitorsorascooperators；

therespectiveadvancesordeclinesmadebycertaingroupsofmerchantswithintheirconfinesinoverseastradehavenonetnationalsignificanceatall。Finally，overseastrade，byitself，furnishesnoindexofthecollectiveprosperityofeachnation。

§；2。ThewholepresentationofthecaseundertheheadofNationsisirrelevantanddeceptive，conveying，asitisdesignedtodo，thefalsesuggestionthatEnglishmen，groupedtogetherasapeople，aresomehowcompetingwithgermansgroupedtogetherasanothernation，andAmericansasathirdnation。Nownosuchcollectivecompetitionexistsatall。Sofarastradeinvolvescompetition，thatcompetitiontakesplace，notbetweennations，butbetweentradingfirms，anditismuchkeenerandmorepersistentbetweentradingfirmsbelongingtothesamenationthanbetweenthosebelongingtodifferentnations。BirminghamorSheffieldfirmscompetewithoneanotherformachineryandmetalcontractsfarmorefiercelythantheycompetewithGermansorAmericansinthesametrade，andsoitisineveryotherindustry。

Theproductionofimportandexportfigures，andofbalancesoftrade，undernationalheadings，isamischievouspanderingtothemostdangerousdelusionoftheage。

Ithasdonemorethananythingelsetohidethegreatandbeneficenttruth，thattheharmonyandsolidarityofeconomicinterestsamongmankindhaveatlastdefinitelytranscendednationallimits，andarerapidlybindingmembersofdifferentnationsinanever-growingnetworkofcooperation。

Withinthelastgenerationamoresolidandabidingfoundationforthiscooperationthanordinaryexchangeofgoodshasbeenlaidintheshapeofinternationalfinance。Thoughcertaindangerousabuseshaveattendeditsbeginnings，thiscooperationofthecitizensofvariouscountriesinbusinessenterprisesinallpartsoftheworldisthemostpotentofforcesmakingforpeaceandprogress。Morerapidlythaniscommonlyconceived，itisbringingintoexistenceasingleeconomicworld-statewithanorderandagovernmentwhicharehardlythelessauthoritativebecause，asyet，theypossessaslenderpoliticalsupport。Thateconomicworld-stateconsistsofallthathugeareaofindustriallydevelopedcountriesinregularandsteadyintercourse，linkedtooneanotherbysystemsofrailroadsandsteamshiproutes，bypostalandtelegraphicservices，administeredbycommonarrangements，byregularcommerce，commonmarketsandreliablemodesofmonetarypayment，andbypartnershipsofcapitalandlabourincommonbusinesstransactions。

§；3。Theactualityofthisworld-systemhasprecededitsconsciousrealisation。Butthegrowingfactiseducatingtheideaandtheaccompanyingsentimentinthemindsofthemoreenlightenedmembersofallcivilisednations。Wehearmoreofinternationalismfromthesideoflabour。But，inpointoffact，thecorporateunityoflabourlagsfarbehindthatofcapital。Forthemobilityofcapitalismuchgreater，anditsdistributionisfarbetterorganised。But，asthefinancialmachineryforthecollectionanddistributionofindustrialpoweroverthewholeeconomicworldisfurtherperfectedandunified，itwillbeattendedbyalooseningofthoselocalandnationalbondswhichhavehithertolimitedthefreemovementoflabour。

Asthecentreofgravityintheeconomicsystemshiftsfromland，whichisimmovable，tomoney，themostmobileofeconomicfactors，sotheoldlocalattachmentwhichkeptmostlabourfastenedtosomesmallplotoftheearth，itsnativevillage，willyieldplacetolibertyofmovementaccommodatedtotheneedsandopportunitiesofmodernprofitablebusiness。

Withinthelimitsofeachcountrytheincreasedmobilityhaslongbeenevident:ithashelpedtobreakupparochialismandprovincialismofideasandfeelings，andtoevolveastrongersenseofnationalunity。Butthereistobenohaltingatthelimitsofthenation。Alreadylargeforcesofinternationallabourexist。NotmerelydovastnumbersofworkersmigratewithincreasedeasefromBelgiumintoFrance，fromRussiaintotheUnitedStates，fromGermanyintoSouthAmerica，forsettlementinthesecountries，butlargebodiesofwage-earnersarebeingorganisedasacosmopolitanlabourforcefollowingthecurrentsofindustrialdevelopmentabouttheworld。

Sofarasunskilledlabourisconcerned，largetractsofChina，IndiaandtheStraitsSettlements，formarecruitinggroundinAsia；whileItalyandAustro-HungaryfurnishalargeEuropeancontingent。Butnotlesssignificantarethehigherranksofcosmopolitanlabour，theBritishandAmericanmanagers，overseersandworkmenintheengineering，railroad，electricalandminingindustries，whoto-dayaremovingsofreelyoverthenewlydevelopingcountriesofthreecontinents，placingtheirbusinessandtechnicalabilityattheserviceoftheeconomicworld。ThenewmovementsintheeconomicdevelopmentofAsiaandofSouthAmericawillenormouslyacceleratethisfreeflowofbusinessabilityandtechnicalskillfromthemoreadvancedWesternnationsovertherelativelybackwardcountries，andwillalsobringintoclosercooperationatalargernumberofpointsthecapitalandmanagementofWesternpeoples。

Myobjectinreferringtotheseconcreteeconomicmovementsofourtimeistoillustratethepowerfultendencieswhicharecounteractingtheoldfalserealisationofindustryintermsofhumancompetitionandantagonism，andaremakingforaconsciousrecognitionofitscooperativeandharmoniouscharacter。CHAPTERXVIII:SOCIALHARMONYIN

ECONOMICLIFE

§；1。Abriefsummaryoftheactualtendenciestowardsharmonyanddiscordatpresentvisibleintheeconomicworldmaybeconvenientlypresentedhere。

Weseeamongthefundamentalindustriesthetransformationofthestructureofthesinglebusiness；largenumbersoflittlerivuletsofsavingsfrominnumerableseparatepersonalsourcesmergingtoformasinglebodyofeffectivecapital；largenumbersofworkerscloselyweldedintoasinglebodyofeffectivelabour-power；bothoperatinginnormalharmonyunderthedirectionofacommoncentralmanagement，andengagedinthecontinuousworkofturningoutaproduct，thepriceofwhichformsthecommonincomealikeforcapitalistsandworkers。Sofarasthatportionofthedividendisconcernedwhichformstheeconomicallynecessarycostsofthesemassesofcapitalandlabour，thereexistsaharmonyofinterestsbetweenthetwogroupsofclaimants，whichismoreclearlyrecognisedwitheveryimprovementofthegeneralstandardofintelligenceandinformation。Inmostbusinessesthatcommonareaofinterestcoversbyfarthelargerpartofthebusinessdividend。Whereasurplusemergesinexcessoftheseeconomiccosts，aninitialdiscordarisesbetweentheclaimsofthecapitalandlabour。Butthisdiscordmayberesolvedintwoways，ineachofwhichimportantexperiments，attendedbyagrowingmeasureofsuccess，arebeingcarriedon。LargepatchesoftheareaofdiscordarebeingreclaimedtoorderbythemodernState，whosepolicyismoreandmoredirectedtoabsorbingbytaxation，andapplyingtotheuseofthecommunity，greatsharesofthesebusinesssurpluses，astheyemergeinincomesandinheritedproperties。Asregardsthesurpluswhichisnotsoabsorbed，thegroupedforcesofcapitalandlabourwithinthebusinessareconstantlyengagedinseekingtodiscoverpacificandequitablemodesofdivisionwhichshallreconcile，oratleastmitigate，theremainingopposition。Thoughthisremainsatpresentthesharpestfieldofconflict，pacificforcesaremakingmoregainthanperhapsappearsuponthesurface。Someofthoseindustries，wheresuchdiscordshavebeenmostrifeandmostwasteful，havebeentakenoverbytheStateortheMunicipality。

Inthesecasessuchquarrelsasmaystillariseinconnectionwiththeclaimsoflabouradmitofsettlementbyothermeansthaneconomicforce。

Inothers，theStateintervenesonbehalfofpublicorderbyassistingtopromoteprocessesofarbitrationorconciliation。Inothers，again，theorganisationoftheforcesofcapitalontheonehand，labourontheother，overthewholerangeofbusinessescomprisinganationaltrade，hastendedtomakeactualconflictsrarer，andpresentsamachinerycapableofapplicationtopacificsettlements。GraveasarethedefectsintheworkingofthismachineryofJointBoards，SlidingScales，Conciliationandthelike，andterribleasaretheinjuriesthesedefectscause，theyoughtnottoblindustoarecognitionofthefactthatthenumberofactualconflictsbetweencapitalandlabourisconstantlydiminishing。

§；2。Thistruthisbetterrealisedwhenweturnfromthestructureofthebusinesstothatofthetradeormarket。There，thoughkeenandevencut-throatcompetitionstillsurvives，thetendencyismoreandmore，especiallyinthegreatstapleindustrieswherelargeaggregatesofcapitalandlabourareemployed，towardscooperation，combinationandtradeagreements。

If，forthemoment，weignorethedangerswhichsuchcombinationsoftenthreatentoconsumers，andregardthemfromthestandpointoftradestructure，wecannotfailtorecognisetheenormousadvancetheyrepresentinthecauseofindustrialharmony。ForwhateverthedegreeofunityattainedbysuchaTrust，Cartel，Conference，TradeAgreement，Federation，itmeansprotantoasavingoftheenergyofcapitalandlabourformerlyexpendeduponconflict，andaconcentrationofthethoughtsandpurposesofbusinessmenuponthebestperformanceoftheusefulfunctionsofproductionwhichconstitutethesocialvalueoftheirtrade。Solongasatraderemainsinadistinctivelycompetitivecondition，anenormouspartoftheactualenergyisconsumednotinproductionbutinwarfare。Thethoughtsandwillsofthecontrollersoftheseveralbusinessesaredeflectedfromtheeconomicalfulfilmentoftheirsocialfunctiontoconsciousrivalry。Neitherthecapitalnorthelabourineachseveralbusinessenjoysareasonablemeasureofsecurity；andnotonlytheprofitsbutthewagesofeachfirmarejeopardisedbythesuccessofastrongercompetingfirm。Thegrowingdisplacementofthisconditionofatradebytheprincipleandpracticeofcombinationisperhapsthemostconspicuousmovementtowardsindustrialpeace。Iamawarethat，initself，thisconcentrationandcombinationofbusinesseswithinatradeaffordnosuresettlementforthedifferencesbetweencapitalandlabour。Theymayevenaggravatethosedifferencesinseveralways。

For，inthefirstplace，suchcombinationsareexpresslyandchieflydesignedtoproducealargerquantityofsurplusprofits，thusstimulatingconflictbyofferingalargerobjectofattacktolabour。Inthesecondplace，suchcombinations，ifatallcomplete，mayprovemoreclearlythaninanyotherwaythesuperiorityoforganisedcapitaloverorganisedlabourinthedeterminationofwagesandconditionsoflabour。Finally，privateownershipofnaturalresources，producingforitsownerseconomicrent，remainsanunsolvedantagonism。Thoughtheextenttowhichthe"surplus"，whichmonopolistic，protectedorotherwisewell-placedbusinessesobtain，asopenorconcealed"rent"，isnotcapableofexactestimate，many，ifnotmost，profitablebusinessesderivesomeoftheirsurplusfromthepossessionorcontrolofnaturalresources。Suchnaturalresourcesaretoallintentsandpurposescapital，sofarasrelatestoissuesofconflictbetweencapitalandlabour。

Theamountandpossiblytheproportionofsurplus(takingthewholeindustrialworldintoconsideration)whichisplainordisguisedrent，isprobablyupontheincrease。EveninGreatBritain，thoughaggregaterentsdonotkeeppacewithprofitsandotherincomesderivedfrombusinesscapital，theyprobablyformanincreasingproportionofthatincomewhich，accordingtoourdefinition，ranksas"unproductivesurplus。"Thoughtheserents，likeother"unproductivesurplus，"couldbeadvantageouslydivertedintowagesontheonehand，publicrevenueupontheother，theyarekeptonthesideofcapitalbythefullforceofcombination。

Thusthelabourinanytrademaybeconfrontedbyalargerbodyofwealthwhichitwouldliketosecureforhigherwages，whileatthesametimeitfindsitselflessabletoachievethisobject。

§；3。Equallysharpmaybetheantagonismofinterestssetupbetweensuchacombineandthegeneralbodyofconsumers，bymeansofthecontrolofpriceswhichtheformerpossesses。Forthelargesurplus，whichweseetobeanobjectofdesiretotheworkersinacombinationortrust，representstotheConsumeranexcessofprices。Soitcomestopassthattheconsumer，unabletocombineinhiseconomiccapacity，astheworkersdointheirtradeunions，combinesascitizenandcallsuponthegovernmenttosafeguardhimagainstmonopolies。Hisfirstinstinctivedemandis，thatsuchcombinationsshallbedeclaredillegalbodies，actinginrestraintoftrade，andbrokenup。Butnothingprovesmoreplainlytheinherentstrengthofthecohesiveunifyingtendenciesthanthecompletenessofthefailuretoachievethisobject。Whenbusinessmendesiretocombine，itisimpossibletoforcethemtocompete。Thealternativesare，eithertoleavetheconsumingpublictothetendermerciesofamonopoly，which，frommereconsiderationsofprofit，maynotbeabletoraiseitspricesbeyondacertainlimit，orelsetoimposelegalregulations，or，finally，tobuyoutthebusiness，transferringitfromaprivateintoapublicmonopoly。

WhereverthemodernStateisdriventoconfrontthisproblem，itiscompelled，inproportionaspublicopinionisarticulateandpoliticallyorganised，tofastenanincreasingmeasureofpubliccontroluponsuchpowerfulcombinations，andtotakeoverintothesphereofStateenterprisesthosewhichcannoteffectivelybecontrolled。Insuchwaysdoesmodernsocietyseektohealthenewdiscordsgeneratedbytheveryprocessesemployedbytheseveralbusinessesandtradesintheirsearchafteraninternalharmony。

Butthelargestformsofcapitalisticenterprisewilltendmoreandmoretotranscendthelimitsofanysinglestate，notonlyintheircompositionbutinthepowerstheyexerciseuponsubsidiaryindustries，anduponthegeneralbodyofconsumersthroughouttheindustrialworld。1Theprivatelyorganisedapparatusofeconomicmachinery，whichconstitutesthefabricofthiseconomicworld-state，hasbeendescribedasastrikingexampleoftheexpansionofindustrialsolidarityandharmony。Buthereagainthepossibilities，nay，certainties，ofnewdiscordbetweencapitalandlabour，producerandconsumer，cannotbeignored。Hencethegreatsocialproblemsofthefuturewilltoalessandlessextentliewithinthepoliticalcompetenceofsinglestatesorbesolublebytheseparateactionofthegovernmentsofthosestates。Thevastcurrentsofinternationalcapitalandlabourcannotflowwithoutgreatdisturbancesoforderandofeconomicinterestsoftenaffectingseveralnations。Thesafe，successful，profitable，pursuitoflargeforeignenterprisesbythecapitalandlabourofpersonsbelongingtomanynationalities，willmoreandmoreinvolvecommonpoliticalaction。

§；4。WearealreadybeginningtorecognisethatourStateisdisabledforthefullysatisfactorysolutionofsomeofthemostpressingofoursocialproblems。Theimmigrationofforeignlabourcomplicatesourtreatmentofsweatedindustries。Theimprovementofconditionsoflabourinourtradesmayberenderedmoredifficultbytheadmissionofsweatedimports，orourfeelingsmaybeshockedbytheinfluxoftheproductsofslavelabour。

Thepolicyoftaxinginterestsandprofitsmaybethwartedbyourinabilitytotracetheincomesderivedfromforeigninvestmentandtrade。AfinancialcrisisinAmericaorgermanymaydepleteourgoldreserveandworkhavoconourcredit。Asthesemovementsgatherforceandfrequency，theimpotenceofanysingleStatetoexerciseaneffectivecontrolovertheprimaryeconomicinterestsofitspeoplewillgrowmoreapparent。Thegravestsocial-economicproblemswillbefoundinsolubleexceptbyinternationalarrangement。AneraoffreeconferencesandofmoreorlesslooseagreementsbetweenStateswilllaythefoundationforwhatintimemustamounttointernationalregulationofindustry。

Inotherwords，theeconomicinternationalism，whichIhavetraced，willweaveforitselfthenecessaryapparelofpoliticalinstitutions。

Thetruegermofworld-federationisperhapstobetracedto-daylessclearlyattheHaguethanatBern，wheretherepresentativesoftheleadingindustrialnationshavealreadymettosetthesealoftheirrespectivegovernmentsuponundertakingstopromotecommonpoliciesoflegislationinsuchmattersastheregulationofnightlabourforwomen，andthedisuseofpoisonousingredientsinthematchtrade。Insuchagreements，asinthebetter-knownPostalUnion(whichalsohasitsofficesatBern)，onefindstheearliestcontributionsmadebymodernindustrialismtothefederalgovernmentoftheworld。

ThesefactsIcite，partlytoenforcethethesisthatthetendenciesofmodernindustrywhichmakeforharmonyandcooperationaregaining，bothinthesmallerandthelargerareas，overthosewhichmakefordiscordandforcompetition。Thisgrowingharmonyoffactmusttendtoevokeacorrespondingharmonyofthoughtandfeeling。Buthereweareretardedbyasetofpsychologicalobstacleswhichpervertordisguisethetruth。

Ihavealludedtothedamageduetothefalserepresentationofnationsasrivaltraders，contendingforalimitedmarketupontermswhichsignifythatthegainofoneisthelossofanother。Butthewholeintellectualandmoralatmosphereisthickwithsimilarmistakesoffactandfallaciesofreasoning，chieflysustainedbyfalsephraseswhichevokefalseimagesandarouseinjuriousdesiresandpassions。Ordinarybusinesslanguageisfilledwithselfish，separatistandcombativephrases，representingtradeasawarfare，inwhicheverymanmustfightforhisownhand，mustforcehiswaresuponthepublic，outwitorbludgeonhiscompetitors，conquernewmarkets，beatdownthepricesofthegoodshebuys，orinfinancebecomea"bull"ora"bear。"Incertainlargedepartmentsofthebusinessworldtherestillremainssomuchdisorder，insecurityandcompetitionastoaffordsupporttothesecombativeviewsandfeelings。Buttheyarenolongerrepresentativeofthemainnormalactivitiesofindustry，andtheyoughtandmustbydegreesbedisplacedbyviewsandfeelingsaccommodatedtothemoreorganicconception。Itisanimportanttaskofeconomicsciencetoenforceconceptionsoftheoperationofeconomiclawswhichwillsupportthesenewerandsounderviewsandfeelings。Foronlywiththisgrowingrecognitionofthesocialharmonyrepresentedbyindustrycanthesocialwillbenourishedthatisnecessarytosupportandfurtherit。Solongastheordinarybusinessmanorworkerhashiseyes，hismind，hisheartandwill，gluedtothetinypatchofindustrytowhichhisowndirectlypersonaleffortisapplied，thepulseofhumanitybeatsfeeblythroughthesystemofindustry。Butlettheordinaryeducationofeverymanandwomanimposeclearimagesofthiseconomicorderasagreathumancooperationinwhicheachbearsanessentialpart，asproducer，consumerandcitizen，thequickenedintelligenceandsympathywillrespond，sothattheblindprocessesofcooperationwillbecomeinfusedandstrengthenedbythecurrentofaconsciouswill。

NOTES:

1。TheforemostexampleofsuchorganisationinagreatstapleindustryistheInternationalIron&；SteelAssociation，formedinJuly1911

byrepresentativesofAustria，Belgium，Canada，France，Germany，GreatBritain，Hungary，Russia，Spain，UnitedStates。Theobjectsofthisorganisationweretoregulateproduction，soastocontrolprofitablepricesandtopreventundercuttingintimesofdepression。(Cf。Chiozza-Money，ThingsthatMatter，Ch。XI)。CHAPTERXIX:INDIVIDUALMOTIVESTOSOCIALSERVICE

§；1。Ourexaminationoftheexistingindustrialsystemdisclosescertaindiscordsofinterestanddesirebetweentheownersoftheseveralfactorsofproduction，ontheonehand，betweenproducersandconsumersontheother。Amongtheownersoffactorsofproductionthesharpestantagonismsarethosebetweenthecapitalistemployerandthewage-earner，andbetweenthelandownerandtheownersofallotherfactors。Exceptasregardstheownershipofland，theseantagonismsarenotabsolutebutqualified。Theinterestsofcapitalandlabour，ofproducerandconsumer，marchtogetheruptoacertainpoint。Theretheydiverge。Thesediscordsofinterestmaterialiseinwhatweterm"thesurplus，"thatportionoftheproductwhich，thoughnotessentialtotheperformanceoftheeconomicprocess，passestocapital，labourortheconsumer，accordingtotheeconomicstrengthwhichnaturalorartificialconditionsassigntoeach。Thehumanisationandrationalisationofindustrydepend，aswerecognise，uponreformingthestructureofbusinessesandindustries，soastoresolvethesediscords，toevokethemosteffectivecooperation，infactandwill，betweentheseveralparties，andtodistributethewholeproduct，costsandsurplus，amongthemupontermswhichsecureforitthelargestaggregateutilityinconsumption。Theoperationofindustryuponthistrulyandconsciouslycooperativebasis，would，itiscontended，evokeincreasedproductivepowers，bybringingintoplaythoseinstinctsofmutualaidthatarelargelyinhibitedbypresentmethods，andbydistributingtheincreasedproductsoastoevokethehighestpersonalefficiencyoflifeandcharacter。

Butitwouldbefoolishtoignorethedoubtsandobjectionswhichareraisedagainstthespiritualassumptionuponwhichthisidealofhumanindustryisbased。Itisoftenurgedthatmanisbynaturesostronglyendowedwithselfishandcombativefeelings，sofeeblywithsocialandcooperative，thathewillnotworkefficientlyunderthereformedeconomicstructuresthatareproposed。Hemustbeallowedfreescopetoplayforhisownhand，toexercisehisfightinginstincts，totriumphoverhiscompetitors，andtoappropriatetheprizesofhazardandadventure，thespoilsattestingpersonalforceandprowess，orelsehewillwithholdthefinestandmostusefulmodesofhiseconomicenergy。

Thedistinctivelyspiritualissuethusraisedisexceedinglymomentous。

Supposethatthebusinesslifecanbesetuponwhatappearstobeasoundandequitablebasis，ishumannaturecapableofrespondingsatisfactorilytosuchanenvironment？Puttingitmoreconcretely，aretheactualpowersofhumansympathyandcooperationcapableofbeingorganisedintoaneffectivesocialwill？ThisissueisseentounderlieallthedoubtsanddifficultiesthatbesettheproposalstoapplyourorganicLawofDistributionforpurposesofpracticalreform。Allproposalsbyorganisedpublicefforttoabolishdestitutiongiverisetofearslestbysodoingweshouldsaptheincentivestopersonaleffort，andsoimpairthecharacterofthepoor。Amongsuchcriticsthereisentertainednocorrespondinghopeorconvictionthatsuchapolicymay，bythebetterandsecurerconditionsoflifeandemploymentitaffords，sowtheseedsofcivicfeelingandofsocialsolidarityamonglargesectionsofourpopulationwhoselifehithertohadbeenlittleelsethanasordidandunmeaningstruggle。Proposalstosecureforpublicusebyprocessoftaxationlargersharesofsurpluswealtharemetbysimilarapprehensionslestsuchencroachmentsuponprivatepropertyshouldimpairtheapplicationofhighqualitiesofbusinessandprofessionalability。

ThegrowingtendencyofStatesandMunicipalitiestoengageinvariousbusinessoperationsisstronglyandpersistentlyattackeduponthegroundthatsufficientpublicspiritcannotbeevokedtosecuretheable，honestmanagementandefficientworkingofsuchpublicconcerns。

Finally，thewholebasicpolicyoftheMinimumWageandtheMaximumWorking-dayisassailedonthesamegroundasalevellingdownprocesswhichwillreducethenetproductivityofindustryandstopalleconomicprogress。

§；2。Tosuchcriticismtworepliesarepossible，eachvalidwithinitslimits。Thefirstconsistsinshowingthattheexistingbusinessarrangementsareextremelyill-adaptedforofferingthebestandmosteconomicallyeffectivestimulitoindividualproductivity。Theyarenotwell-directedtodiscover，apply，andimprovethebestandmostprofitablesortsofhumanabilityandlabour。Inotherwords，theactualsystemforutilisingselfishnessforindustrialpurposesiswofullydefective:nine-tenthsofthepowerremainsunextractedorrunstowaste。

Thosewhorelyuponthiscriticismbasetheirreformpolicyupontheprovisionofbettereconomicopportunitiesandbetterpersonalstimulitoindividuals。Butsuchreformswillnotsuffice。Whatisneededaboveallisasocialsoultoinhabitthesocialbodyinourindustrialsystem。

Aconsciouscoordinatingprinciple——anindustrialgovernment，inwhichtheconsentofthegovernedshallberepresentedintheirseveralwillsandconsciousnessaswellasinsomecentralorganiccontrol——istobedesiderated。Nowisthisconditionofthoughtandofdesirereallyattainable？

Canwereallysupposethatanysortofeducationislikelytoarouseandmaintainintherank-and-fileofemployeeseitherinthepublicservicesorinthegreatprivateindustriesasenseofpublicdutyandarealisationofthelargerindustrialharmony，whichwillcompensateinanyappreciablemeasureforthedulnessanddrudgeryoftheirparticularjob，andfurnishaneffectivecheckuponshirkingorslacking？Supposethatasalarybasisofpayment，ashortenedwork-dayandsecurityoftenure，withadequateinsuranceagainsteconomicmishaps，hadbeenobtainedinallregularoccupations，wouldthequickenedsenseofcooperationyieldaproductiveenergyadequatetotherequirements？

Tothisquestionitmust，Ithink，befranklyanswered，thatwecannottell。Wehavenosufficientdataforaconfidentreply。Thegeneralreplyofbusinessmenandofeconomistswould，Ithink，beinthenegative。Itwouldbeurgedthatthegreaterpartoftheroutineworkofindustrywillalwaysremainsodullandtiresome，thesenseofpublicdutysoweakandintermittent，thatthefixedsalarybasisofremunerationwillnotproveanadequateincentivefortherequiredamountofhumaneffort。

Theexperienceofexistingsocialserviceswouldbeadducedinsupportofthisjudgment。Publicemployees，itiscomplained，workwithlessenergythanprivateemployees；thereismoreslackingandscampingandmoremalingering；

the"governmentstroke"hasbecomeaby-word。Thedignityofsocialservicedoesnotevokeanyclearresponseinthebreastoftheemployee。Suchisthecomplaint。Itisprobablynotill-founded。Thegreatmassofpublicemployeesarecertainlynotanimatedbymuchconsciousprideandsatisfactioninrenderingsocialservice。But，beforeregisteringafinaljudgmentuponsuchevidence，certainqualifyingconsiderationsmustbetakenintoaccount。

Theattitudeofaworkertowardshisworkwillbestronglyaffectedbytheprevailingattitudeofthosearoundhim。Solongasthegeneraleconomicenvironmentisoneinwhichtheinterestsofemployerandemployedarerepresentedasantagonistic，similarideasandsentimentswillcontinuetoaffectthefeelingsofpublicservants。Theywillnotrealisethattheyareworkingforthemselvesinworkingforsocietyofwhichtheyaremembers:

theywilltreatthedepartmentforwhichtheyworkratherasanalienorahostilebody，bentupongettingasmuchoutofthemandgivingaslittleaspossible。Itisjustherethatwetouchthemostsensitivespotinthepsychologyofgovernment，thebestrecogniseddefectofbureaucracy。Thehigherofficials，whocontrolandmanagepublicbusinesses，evokeintherank-and-fileofthepublicemployeesverymuchthesamesentimentsofestrangementoroppositionthatprevailinmostprivatebusinessesbetweenemployerandemployee。Forinpointoffact，thetemperandmentalattitudeofhigherofficialsarethoseofamasterinhisownbusiness，notthoseofapublicservant。Thataffectstheirdealingsnotonlywiththerank-and-fileintheirdepartment，butwiththeoutsidepublic。Inaso-calleddemocracy，wherethehighestaswellasthelowestofficersofstatearepaidbythepeopletodoworkforthepeople，nomethodofeffectivepopularcontrolovertheofficialserviceshasyetbeendevised。Theabsenceofanysuchcontrolisclearlyrecognisedbyallhighofficials，anditpowerfullyinfluencestheirmindandtheirbehaviour。Uncontrolled，orinsufficientlycontrolledpower，ofcourse，affectsdifferentlydifferenttypesofmen。

Itinducesslacknessandtheadoptionofaslowconservativeroutineinthoseoftorpiddisposition。Menofarbitrarytemperwillbeledtodespotictreatmentoftheirstaff。Menofbrainsandenterprisewillbefreetoembarkuponexpensiveenterprises，tothegainorlossoftheirpaymasters。

Butinnocasedoestheactualsituationfavourthepermeationofthepublicservicebyafullsenseofsocialcooperationandjointresponsibility。

Highofficialsmayandoftendoexhibitgreatenergyanddisinterestedzealinthepublicservice。Butthesenseofmastery，bothinrelationtothelowergradesofemployeeandtothepublic，isalwaysdiscernible。

Theyhavethispowerandtheyknowit。Until，therefore，thesenseofpublicservicecanbemadearealityamongthehigherpublicofficers，notruetestoftheefficacyofthegeneralwillistobeobtained。ThisreformationofBureaucracyisthechiefcruxofmoderndemocracy。Forunlesssomemodeisfoundofexpellingfromthehigherpublicservantstheprideofcaste，andofkeepingtheminsympatheticcontactwiththegeneralcurrentofpopularfeeling，themassofthesubordinateemployeeswillnotrespondtothesocialclaimupontheireconomicenergies。

Finally，thefamiliarcriticismoftheinefficiencyofpublicemployeesinthiscountrydoesnottakeproperaccountofconditionsofemployment。

Forwhilethetopgradeofofficialsispaidmorehandsomelyandenjoysmoredignityandsecuritythaninothercountries，thelowergradesareoftensubjecttoconditionsofpay，hoursandtenure，notappreciablybetterthanthoseprevailingintheordinarylabour-market。Untiltheseconditionsareimproved，itmayreasonablybecontendedthatthedignityofpublicservicecannotbeexpectedtofurnishaneffectiveeconomicmotive。

If，however，increasedsecurityoflifeandlivelihoodcouldbeobtainedforthepeople，withsuchimprovementofoureducationalsystemasprovidedadequateopportunitiesforenablingthechildrenofthepoorerclassestoenterallgradesofthepublicservices，thebeginningsofagreatchangeinthespiritofthoseservicesmightbeattained。For，ifthewidegapsofdignityandofemoluments，whichdivideatpresentthehigherfromthelowergrades，couldbereduced，whileatthesametimeeffectivepublicityandcriticismcouldbebroughttobearuponalldepartmentsofpublicwork，the"bureaucraticstate"mightbetransformedintosomethingmorenearlyapproachingaself-governingsociety。

§；3。Thecoolpracticalbusinessmenwill，however，probablyinsistthatnoneofthesedevicesforimprovingeducationandforstimulatingpublicspiritwillenableapublicdepartmenttogetoutofitsemployeessolargeanoutputofproductiveenergyascanbesecuredbythestimuliofprivateprofit-seekingenterprise。Andthismaypossiblybetrue。Butthosewhohaveacceptedthegenerallinesofouranalysiswillrecognisethatsuchanadmissionisnotfataltothecaseforsalariedemploymentandpublicservice。Fortheprivatebusinessisprimarilyconcernedwithonesideofthehumanequation，theproduct，andisableinlargemeasuretoignorethehumancostsinvolvedingettingit。ButtheState，asrepresentingthehumanwelfareofitsmembers，musttakethecostsintoaccountaswell。

AnintelligentSocietywouldregarditasafoolishpolicytoattempttogetoutofitsemployeestheamountofdailytoilimposedundertheconditionsofmostprofit-makingbusinesses。While，therefore，itistruethatapublicservice，runuponanadequatebasisoffixedsalaryandshortwork-day，wouldstandcondemned，iftheoutputofeffectiveenergypermanfellgreatlybelowthatfurnishedunderthedriveofordinarycapitalism，aslightreductionofthatoutputmightbewelcomedasinvolvinganactualgaininhumanwelfare。

Thediminishedutilityoftheproductmightbemorethancompensatedintermsofhumanwelfarebythediminishedhumancostoftheproductiveprocess。

Itisnot，therefore，incumbentupontheadvocatesofanewindustrialorder，baseduponacloserapplicationoftheorganiclaw，toshowthatsuchanorderwillyieldatleastaslargeanoutputofeconomicenergyandeconomicproductascanbegotoutofthemixedcompetitionandcombinationwhichprevailatpresent。Applyingthisstandardofhumanvaluation，theyareentitledtosetoffagainstanyreductionofpurelyeconomicstimulithatmayensuefromtheirreforms，notonlythereliefinhumancostswhichaccompaniessuchreductionbuttheenlargementofotherhumangains。

For，thoughinthisendeavourtovalueindustrialactivitiesandproductsintermsofhumanwelfare，wehaveforthemostpartconfinedourselvestothehumancostsandutilitiesdirectlyconnectedwiththeprocessesofeconomicproductionandconsumption，wecannotignorethewidermeaningoftheseprocesses。Manlivesnotbybread，oreconomicgoods，alone，butby"admiration，hopeandlove。"Thoughthevariousnon-economicgoodsandactivitiesdonotdirectlyenterintoourhumanvaluationofindustry，wecannotneglecttheinteractionsbetweentheeconomicandtheotherhumaninterestsinvolvedintheorganicnatureofmanandofsociety。

§；4。Thewiderproblemofhumaneconomy，theemploymentofallhumanpowersforhumanwelfare，mustinfactinvolveacontinualreadjustmentbetweentherespectiveclaimsoftheeconomicandthenon-economicactivitiesuponourlives。Mostthoughtfulcriticsofouragecomplainthatthisadjustmentisdefectiveinthatbusinessbulkstoolargelyinourlives。Theyconsiderthatourmoderncommandovertheresourcesofnatureforthesatisfactionofourwantsoughttoissuenotsomuchinthelargersupplyofold，andtheconstantadditionofneweconomicwants，asintheincreasedliberationofhumanpowersforothermodesofenergyandsatisfaction。Thereexistwholecountrieseveninourtime，suchasChina，wherepopulationliessothickupontheearth，andwheretheartsofindustryremainsoprimitive，thatvirtuallythewholevitalenergyofthepeoplemustbeabsorbedintheeconomicprocesses。Thisisnotourcase。Withourimprovingartsofindustryandourdwindlinggrowthofpopulation，wecanaffordtogiveanincreasingshareofourinterestsandenergiestothecultivationandenjoymentofintellectualandmoralgoods。Thegradualrealisationofthishumaneconomyisthebestmeasureofourcivilisation。Ourgreatestimpedimentinthisprogressisthesuperstitiousandexcessivevalueputbyallclassesofourpeopleuponindustryandproperty。Thisisalmostidenticalwithachargeofmaterialism，foreconomicvaluescentreroundmaterialformsofproperty。"Gettingandspendingwelaywasteourpowers。"Thisisaliteralstatementofourbadeconomy。Untilwecan，asanation，throwoffthedominionoftheeconomicspirit，wecannotwinthespirituallibertyneededfortheascentofman。Solongaswestand，forfullsix-seventhsofourtimeandmore，withhandsandeyes，intelligenceandwill，dedicatedtotheserviceofindustrialism，wecannotsee，muchlessrealise，betteridealsofhumanity。Absorbedinearningalivelihood，wehavenotimeorenergytolive。

Suchsentencesasthese，Iamwellaware，havebecomecommonplaces，andsuchwisdomastheycontainhassobecomealmostimpotent。Thisdrawingofthefangsoftruthbyreducingittotruismsisoneofthemostseriousobstaclestointellectualandmoralprogress。FromthetimeofWordsworthtothepresentdayourwisestteachershavedemandedthatindustryandpropertyshallbeputintheirrightplacesasservants，notmasters，ofmen，andthatourconquestovernatureshallbeattendedbyaliberationofallsortsandconditionsofmenfromthetyrannyofmatter。Innoadequatedegreehasthisliberationbeenachieved。Theironofindustrialismhasenteredsodeeplyintooursoulsthatwearelothtouseourliberty。Whyisthisso？

Manisaspiritualaswellasamaterialbeing。Hisascentincivilisationimpliesanincreasingsatisfactionofhisspiritualneeds。Inthishigherlifeeconomicprocessesandmarketvaluesplayadiminishingpart。Howcomesit，then，thatthevasteconomiesofmodernindustryhavedonesolittletoreleaseusfromthebondageoftheeconomicsystem？Whyhaveindustryandpropertyretainedsodominantagraspuponourthoughtsandfeelings，continuallycheckingouraspirationstothehigherlife，continuallyencroachingonthetimeandenergywhichbyrightswouldseemtobelongtothatlife？

§；5。Thetrueanswertothesequestionsisnotdifficulttofind。

Wehavesketchedagrowingorder，harmonyandunity，ofindustriallife，concernedwiththeregularsupplyofeconomicneedsformankind。Weresuchanordereffectivelyachieved，inaccordancewiththerationalandequitableapplicationofourhumanlawofdistribution，theeconomyofindustrialprocesseswouldbeaccompaniedbyacorrespondingeconomyofthoughtandemotionamongthehumanbeingsengagedinthiscommoncooperation。Thissocialeconomydemands，aswehaveseen，thesubstitutionofsocialwelfareforprivateprofitasthedirectingmotivethroughoutindustry。ButitdoesnotimplyacompletelysocialisticsysteminwhicheachproductiveprocessisunderthedirectandexclusivecontrolofSociety。Forthatassertionofabsoluteunitywouldcontainadenialofthemanifoldnessofdesireandpurposeinvolvedintheveryconceptcooperation。Scopemustremain，intheinterestsofsocietyitself，forthelegitimateplayofindividuality。Thewell-orderedsocietywillutilisetheenergiesofegoisminfruitfulfieldsofindividualactivity。Thehumanegowillalwaysseekadirectlypersonalself-expressioninthefreeexerciseofartisticinstinctsandothercreativeoradventurousactivitiesthatyieldthegloryofachievement。

Theseprimarilyself-regardingimpulsesaremadesociallyprofitablebyallowingthemfreeexpressioninthesefields。Theattempttoregulateanddirecttheseimpulsesandtheirproductiveactivitieswouldbedisastrous。

Thisplayofunfetteredpersonalityinthefinearts，inliterature，intheunsettledandexperimentalsectionofeachprofessionandeachtrade，mustbeconserved，notasaninherentrightofindividualsbutasasoundsocialeconomy。Forthedistinctionbetweenthesefreecreativeactivitiesandtheordinaryrunofroutineworkinthetradeandprofessionsisfundamental。

Itisnotthattheformer，thefreeunorganisedactivities，arenotastrulysocialasthelatterintheirultimatesignificanceandworth。Buttheirsocialvalueisbestsecuredbyleavingthemtothestimuliofpersonalinterests。Thecreativeactivities，includingallworkwhichpleasure，interest，surpriseorpersonalpride，causetobedesireduponitsownaccount，neednosocialcompulsiontoevokethem。Theirproductisthefreegiftwhichtheindividualmakestothecommonwealthoutoftherichesofhisactivepersonality。Astheircosttohimismorethancompensatedbythepleasuresofcreation，hewillcontributethemfreelytotheserviceofmankind。Butevenifacoarserstreakofselfishnesscausesthecreativeartist，poet，inventor，discoverer，toclaimsomelargeshareofthemarketablevalueofhisproductforhimself，itwillbetterservesocietytopayhimhisprice，thantoattemptto"organise"creationonapublicbasis。Suchsufficientmaterialrewardsofgeniusorhightalent，iftheyarereallynecessarytoevokethecreativeactivity，mustrightlybeconsidered"costs"

ratherthan"surplus。"Therewillremainamarginofsuchunfetteredprivateenterprise，notonlyinthefineartsandthelearnedprofessions，wherethecreativemindseemsmostinevidence，butatthegrowingpointofeverylivingindustry。Forthedistinctionbetweencreationandimitationorroutine，aswehaveseen，cannotbeappliedinawholesalewaytoentiretradesandoccupations。Buddingandexperimentalindustries，involvinglargeapplicationofinventiveandconstructiveenergy，appealingtonewanduncertaintastes，carryingheavyrisksofcapitalandreputation，arebetterlefttoindividualenterprise。Thesameindustries，settledonestablishedlines，withsmallerrisksandsmalleropportunitiesofusefulchange，willproperlypassunderdirectsocialcontrol。Itishardlyconceivablethatthedevelopmentofthemotor-carandtheaeroplanecouldhavebeensorapid，iftheseindustrieshadbeenattheoutsetclaimedasStatemonopoliesandofficialexpertshadalonebeensettooperatethem。Theinjuriousretardationofelectriclightingandtransportinthiscountrybythelegalshacklesimposeduponthemhasbeenastrikingtestimonytothesocialharmdonebyprematureapplicationofsocialcontroltoanindustryinitsearlyexperimentalstage。

Ontheotherhand，itisequallyfoolishtoexcludefromeffectivesocialregulationorstateorganisationentireprofessions，suchasteaching，law，ormedicine，onthegroundthattheyareessentially"creative。"Fortheyarenot。Theverynameprofessionimpliestheadoptionofprescribedandacceptedmethodsfordealingwithlargeordinaryclassesofcases，thatistosayroutineprocedure。Though，aswerecognise，suchproceduremayneverreachthesamedegreeofmechanicalroutineasprevailsinordinaryprocessesofmanufacture，thecommonfactorsmaybesopredominantastobringthemproperlyunderthesamepublicregimen。Though，forexample，class-teachingwillalwayscarrysomeelementoforiginalityandpersonalskill，atrueregardforpublicinterestsestablishesclosepubliccontrolofcurriculumandmethodinthosebranchesofinstructioninwhichitisconvenienttogivethesameteachingtolargenumbersofchildrenatthesametime。Ineducation，asinmedicineandineveryotherskilledcalling，therearegradesofpracticerightlyclassedasregularorroutine。Whereitisimportantformembersofthepublictobeabletoobtainsuchservices，inreliablequalitiesuponknownandreasonableterms，effectivesocialcontrolofthemmustbesecured。For，otherwise，apowerofprivatetyrannyorofextortionorneglectisvestedintheproducersofsuchservices。

Theinadequatepubliccontroloverthemedicalandlegalservicesinthiscountryisraisingacropofgravepracticalproblemsforearlysolution。

Soineveryindustryoroccupationtherelativelyroutineworkrequiresdirectsocialorganisationwhilethepreponderantlycreativeworkshouldbeleftto"private"enterprise。Theformerclasscontainsthegreatbulkofthoseindustrieswhich，concentratedinlargebusinessesfortheprofitablesupplyoftheprimeneedsandconveniencesofordinarymenandwomen，breedcombinationsandmonopolies。Whereasinthecreativeindustriesthereexistsanaturalharmonyofinterestsbetweenproducerandconsumerthatwillsecuretosocietythebestfruitsofindividualeffort，thisisnotthecaseintheroutineindustries。Theretheoperationofthehumanlawofdistributioncanonlybesecuredbydirectsocialorganisation。Onlythuscanexcessiveprivatesurplus，involvingatyrannyoverlabourontheonehand，theconsumerontheother，beprevented。Innootherwaycanthemainorgansofindustrybeinfusedwiththehumanfeelingsofsolidarityandcooperationessentialtothestabilityandprogressofsocialindustries。