第4章

ThesentenceofproscriptionpronouncedupontheElectorsoondetachedthefreecitiesfromtheUnion；andtheprincesquicklyfollowedtheirexample。Fortunateinpreservingtheirowndominions，theyabandonedtheElector，theirformerchief，totheEmperor’smercy，renouncedtheUnion，andvowednevertoreviveitagain。

ButwhilethusingloriouslytheGermanprincesdesertedtheunfortunateFrederick，andwhileBohemia，Silesia，andMoraviasubmittedtotheEmperor，asingleman，asoldieroffortune，whoseonlytreasurewashissword，ErnestCountMansfeld，dared，intheBohemiantownofPilsen，todefythewholepowerofAustria。

LeftwithoutassistanceafterthebattleofPraguebytheElector，towhoseservicehehaddevotedhimself，andevenuncertainwhetherFrederickwouldthankhimforhisperseverance，healoneforsometimeheldoutagainsttheimperialists，tillthegarrison，mutinyingforwantofpay，soldthetowntotheEmperor。

Undismayedbythisreverse，heimmediatelycommencednewleviesintheUpperPalatinate，andenlistedthedisbandedtroopsoftheUnion。

Anewarmyof20，000menwassoonassembledunderhisbanners，themoreformidabletotheprovinceswhichmightbetheobjectofitsattack，becauseitmustsubsistbyplunder。Uncertainwherethisswarmmightlight，theneighbouringbishopstrembledfortheirrichpossessions，whichofferedatemptingpreytoitsravages。But，pressedbytheDukeofBavaria，whonowenteredtheUpperPalatinate，Mansfeldwascompelledtoretire。

Eluding，byasuccessfulstratagem，theBavariangeneral，Tilly，whowasinpursuitofhim，hesuddenlyappearedintheLowerPalatinate，andtherewreakeduponthebishopricsoftheRhinetheseveritieshehaddesignedforthoseofFranconia。WhiletheimperialandBavarianalliesthusoverranBohemia，theSpanishgeneral，Spinola，hadpenetratedwithanumerousarmyfromtheNetherlandsintotheLowerPalatinate，which，however，thepacificationofUlmpermittedtheUniontodefend。

Buttheirmeasuresweresobadlyconcerted，thatoneplaceafteranotherfellintothehandsoftheSpaniards；andatlast，whentheUnionbrokeup，thegreaterpartofthecountrywasinthepossessionofSpain。

TheSpanishgeneral，Corduba，whocommandedthesetroopsaftertherecallofSpinola，hastilyraisedthesiegeofFrankenthal，whenMansfeldenteredtheLowerPalatinate。ButinsteadofdrivingtheSpaniardsoutofthisprovince，hehastenedacrosstheRhinetosecureforhisneedytroopsshelterandsubsistenceinAlsace。Theopencountriesonwhichthisswarmofmauraudersthrewthemselveswereconvertedintofrightfuldeserts，andonlybyenormouscontributionscouldthecitiespurchaseanexemptionfromplunder。Reinforcedbythisexpedition，MansfeldagainappearedontheRhinetocovertheLowerPalatinate。

Solongassuchanarmfoughtforhim，thecauseoftheElectorFrederickwasnotirretrievablylost。Newprospectsbegantoopen，andmisfortuneraisedupfriendswhohadbeensilentduringhisprosperity。

KingJamesofEngland，whohadlookedonwithindifferencewhilehisson-in-lawlosttheBohemiancrown，wasarousedfromhisinsensibilitywhentheveryexistenceofhisdaughterandgrandsonwasatstake，andthevictoriousenemyventuredanattackupontheElectorate。

Lateenough，heatlastopenedhistreasures，andhastenedtoaffordsuppliesofmoneyandtroops，firsttotheUnion，whichatthattimewasdefendingtheLowerPalatinate，andafterwards，whentheyretired，toCountMansfeld。

Byhismeanshisnearrelation，Christian，KingofDenmark，wasinducedtoaffordhisactivesupport。Atthesametime，theapproachingexpirationofthetrucebetweenSpainandHollanddeprivedtheEmperorofallthesupplieswhichotherwisehemightexpectfromthesideoftheNetherlands。MoreimportantstillwastheassistancewhichthePalatinatereceivedfromTransylvaniaandHungary。

ThecessationofhostilitiesbetweenGaborandtheEmperorwasscarcelyatanend，whenthisoldandformidableenemyofAustriaoverranHungaryanew，andcausedhimselftobecrownedkinginPresburg。

Sorapidwashisprogressthat，toprotectAustriaandHungary，BoucquoiwasobligedtoevacuateBohemia。ThisbravegeneralmethisdeathatthesiegeofNeuhausel，as，shortlybefore，thenolessvaliantDampierrehadfallenbeforePresburg。Gabor’smarchintotheAustrianterritorywasirresistible；theoldCountThurn，andseveralotherdistinguishedBohemians，hadunitedtheirhatredandtheirstrengthwiththisirreconcileableenemyofAustria。AvigorousattackonthesideofGermany，whileGaborpressedtheEmperoronthatofHungary，mighthaveretrievedthefortunesofFrederick；but，unfortunately，theBohemiansandGermanshadalwayslaiddowntheirarmswhenGabortookthefield；andthelatterwasalwaysexhaustedattheverymomentthattheformerbegantorecovertheirvigour。

MeanwhileFrederickhadnotdelayedtojoinhisprotectorMansfeld。

IndisguiseheenteredtheLowerPalatinate，ofwhichthepossessionwasatthattimedisputedbetweenMansfeldandtheBavariangeneral，Tilly，theUpperPalatinatehavingbeenlongconquered。Arayofhopeshoneuponhimas，fromthewreckoftheUnion，newfriendscameforward。

AformermemberoftheUnion，GeorgeFrederick，MargraveofBaden，hadforsometimebeenengagedinassemblingamilitaryforce，whichsoonamountedtoaconsiderablearmy。ItsdestinationwaskeptasecrettillhesuddenlytookthefieldandjoinedMansfeld。

Beforecommencingthewar，heresignedhisMargraviatetohisson，inthehopeofeluding，bythisprecaution，theEmperor’srevenge，ifhisenterprizeshouldbeunsuccessful。Hisneighbour，theDukeofWirtemberg，likewisebegantoaugmenthismilitaryforce。

ThecourageofthePalatinerevived，andhelabouredassiduouslytorenewtheProtestantUnion。ItwasnowtimeforTillytoconsultforhisownsafety，andhehastilysummonedtheSpanishtroops，underCorduba，tohisassistance。Butwhiletheenemywasunitinghisstrength，MansfeldandtheMargraveseparated，andthelatterwasdefeatedbytheBavariangeneralnearWimpfen(1622)。

Todefendakingwhomhisnearestrelationpersecuted，andwhowasdesertedevenbyhisownfather-in-law，therehadcomeforwardanadventurerwithoutmoney，andwhoseverylegitimacywasquestioned。

Asovereignhadresignedpossessionsoverwhichhereignedinpeace，tohazardtheuncertainfortuneofwarinbehalfofastranger。

Andnowanothersoldieroffortune，poorinterritorialpossessions，butrichinillustriousancestry，undertookthedefenceofacausewhichtheformerdespairedof。Christian，DukeofBrunswick，administratorofHalberstadt，seemedtohavelearntfromCountMansfeldthesecretofkeepinginthefieldanarmyof20，000menwithoutmoney。

Impelledbyyouthfulpresumption，andinfluencedpartlybythewishofestablishinghisreputationattheexpenseoftheRomanCatholicpriesthood，whomhecordiallydetested，andpartlybyathirstforplunder，heassembledaconsiderablearmyinLowerSaxony，underthepretextofespousingthedefenceofFrederick，andofthelibertiesofGermany。

"God’sFriend，Priest’sFoe"，wasthemottohechoseforhiscoinage，whichwasstruckoutofchurchplate；andhisconductbeliedonehalfatleastofthedevice。

Theprogressofthesebandittiwas，asusual，markedbythemostfrightfuldevastation。EnrichedbythespoilsofthechaptersofLowerSaxonyandWestphalia，theygatheredstrengthtoplunderthebishopricsupontheUpperRhine。Drivenfromthence，bothbyfriendsandfoes，theAdministratorapproachedthetownofHoechstontheMaine，whichhecrossedafteramurderousactionwithTilly，whodisputedwithhimthepassageoftheriver。

Withthelossofhalfhisarmyhereachedtheoppositebank，wherehequicklycollectedhisshatteredtroops，andformedajunctionwithMansfeld。

PursuedbyTilly，thisunitedhostthrewitselfagainintoAlsace，torepeattheirformerravages。WhiletheElectorFrederickfollowed，almostlikeafugitivemendicant，thisswarmofplundererswhichacknowledgedhimasitslord，anddignifieditselfwithhisname，hisfriendswerebusilyendeavouringtoeffectareconciliationbetweenhimandtheEmperor。FerdinandtookcarenottodeprivethemofallhopeofseeingthePalatinerestoredtohisdominion。

Fullofartificeanddissimulation，hepretendedtobewillingtoenterintoanegotiation，hopingtherebytocooltheirardourinthefield，andtopreventthemfromdrivingmatterstoextremity。JamesI。，everthedupeofSpanishcunning，contributednotalittle，byhisfoolishintermeddling，topromotetheEmperor’sschemes。

FerdinandinsistedthatFrederick，ifhewouldappealtohisclemency，should，firstofall，laydownhisarms，andJamesconsideredthisdemandextremelyreasonable。Athisinstigation，theElectordismissedhisonlyrealdefenders，CountMansfeldandtheAdministrator，andinHollandawaitedhisownfatefromthemercyoftheEmperor。

MansfeldandDukeChristianwerenowatalossforsomenewname；

thecauseoftheElectorhadnotsettheminmotion，sohisdismissalcouldnotdisarmthem。Warwastheirobject；itwasallthesametotheminwhosecauseornameitwaswaged。AftersomevainattemptsonthepartofMansfeldtobereceivedintotheEmperor’sservice，bothmarchedintoLorraine，wheretheexcessesoftheirtroopsspreadterroreventotheheartofFrance。Heretheylongwaitedinvainforamasterwillingtopurchasetheirservices；tilltheDutch，pressedbytheSpanishGeneralSpinola，offeredtotakethemintopay。

AfterabloodyfightatFleuruswiththeSpaniards，whoattemptedtointerceptthem，theyreachedHolland，wheretheirappearancecompelledtheSpanishgeneralforthwithtoraisethesiegeofBergen-op-Zoom。ButevenHollandwassoonwearyofthesedangerousguests，andavailedherselfofthefirstmomenttogetridoftheirunwelcomeassistance。MansfeldallowedhistroopstorecruitthemselvesfornewenterprisesinthefertileprovinceofEastFriezeland。DukeChristian，passionatelyenamouredoftheElectressPalatine，withwhomhehadbecomeacquaintedinHolland，andmoredisposedforwarthanever，ledbackhisarmyintoLowerSaxony，bearingthatprincess’sgloveinhishat，andonhisstandardsthemotto"AllforGodandHer"。Neitheroftheseadventurershadasyetruntheircareerinthiswar。

Alltheimperialterritorieswerenowfreefromtheenemy；

theUnionwasdissolved；theMargraveofBaden，DukeChristian，andMansfeld，drivenfromthefield，andthePalatinateoverrunbytheexecutivetroopsoftheempire。ManheimandHeidelbergwereinpossessionofBavaria，andFrankenthalwasshortlyafterwardscededtotheSpaniards。ThePalatine，inadistantcornerofHolland，awaitedthedisgracefulpermissiontoappease，byabjectsubmission，thevengeanceoftheEmperor；andanElectoralDietwasatlastsummonedtodecidehisfate。Thatfate，however，hadbeenlongbeforedecidedatthecourtoftheEmperor；thoughnow，forthefirsttime，werecircumstancesfavourableforgivingpublicitytothedecision。AfterhispastmeasurestowardstheElector，Ferdinandbelievedthatasincerereconciliationwasnottobehopedfor。

Theviolentcoursehehadoncebegun，mustbecompletedsuccessfully，orrecoiluponhimself。Whatwasalreadylostwasirrecoverable；

Frederickcouldneverhopetoregainhisdominions；

andaprincewithoutterritoryandwithoutsubjectshadlittlechanceofretainingtheelectoralcrown。DeeplyasthePalatinehadoffendedagainsttheHouseofAustria，theservicesoftheDukeofBavariawerenolessmeritorious。IftheHouseofAustriaandtheRomanCatholicchurchhadmuchtodreadfromtheresentmentandreligiousrancourofthePalatinefamily，theyhadasmuchtohopefromthegratitudeandreligiouszealoftheBavarian。Lastly，bythecessionofthePalatineElectoratetoBavaria，theRomanCatholicreligionwouldobtainadecisivepreponderanceintheElectoralCollege，andsecureapermanenttriumphinGermany。

ThelastcircumstancewassufficienttowinthesupportofthethreeEcclesiasticalElectorstothisinnovation；

andamongtheProtestantsthevoteofSaxonywasaloneofanyimportance。

ButcouldJohnGeorgebeexpectedtodisputewiththeEmperoraright，withoutwhichhewouldexposetoquestionhisowntitletotheelectoraldignity？Toaprincewhomdescent，dignity，andpoliticalpowerplacedattheheadoftheProtestantchurchinGermany，nothing，itistrue，oughttobemoresacredthanthedefenceoftherightsofthatchurchagainstalltheencroachmentsoftheRomanCatholics。

ButthequestionherewasnotwhethertheinterestsoftheProtestantsweretobesupportedagainsttheRomanCatholics，butwhichoftworeligionsequallydetested，theCalvinisticandthePopish，wastotriumphovertheother；towhichofthetwoenemies，equallydangerous，thePalatinatewastobeassigned；andinthisclashingofoppositeduties，itwasnaturalthatprivatehateandprivategainshoulddeterminetheevent。ThebornprotectorofthelibertiesofGermany，andoftheProtestantreligion，encouragedtheEmperortodisposeofthePalatinatebyhisimperialprerogative；

andtoapprehendnoresistanceonthepartofSaxonytohismeasuresonthemeregroundofform。IftheElectorwasafterwardsdisposedtoretractthisconsent，Ferdinandhimself，bydrivingtheEvangelicalpreachersfromBohemia，wasthecauseofthischangeofopinion；and，intheeyesoftheElector，thetransferenceofthePalatineElectoratetoBavariaceasedtobeillegal，assoonasFerdinandwasprevailedupontocedeLusatiatoSaxony，inconsiderationofsixmillionsofdollars，astheexpensesofthewar。

Thus，indefianceofallProtestantGermany，andinmockeryofthefundamentallawsoftheempire，which，ashiselection，hehadsworntomaintain，FerdinandatRatisbonsolemnlyinvestedtheDukeofBavariawiththePalatinate，withoutprejudice，astheformran，totherightswhichtherelationsordescendantsofFrederickmightafterwardsestablish。Thatunfortunateprincethussawhimselfirrevocablydrivenfromhispossessions，withouthavingbeenevenheardbeforethetribunalwhichcondemnedhim——aprivilegewhichthelawallowstothemeanestsubject，andeventothemostatrociouscriminal。

ThisviolentstepatlastopenedtheeyesoftheKingofEngland；

andasthenegociationsforthemarriageofhissonwiththeInfantaofSpainwerenowbrokenoff，Jamesbeganseriouslytoespousethecauseofhisson-in-law。AchangeintheFrenchministryhadplacedCardinalRichelieuattheheadofaffairs，andthisfallenkingdomsoonbegantofeelthatagreatmindwasatthehelmofstate。TheattemptsoftheSpanishViceroyinMilantogainpossessionoftheValtelline，andthustoformajunctionwiththeAustrianhereditarydominions，revivedtheoldendreadofthispower，andwithitthepolicyofHenrytheGreat。ThemarriageofthePrinceofWaleswithHenriettaofFrance，establishedacloseunionbetweenthetwocrowns；

andtothisalliance，Holland，Denmark，andsomeoftheItalianstatespresentlyacceded。Itsobjectwastoexpel，byforceofarms，SpainfromtheValtelline，andtocompelAustriatoreinstateFrederick；

butonlythefirstofthesedesignswasprosecutedwithvigour。

JamesI。died，andCharlesI。，involvedindisputeswithhisParliament，couldnotbestowattentionontheaffairsofGermany。SavoyandVenicewithheldtheirassistance；andtheFrenchministerthoughtitnecessarytosubduetheHuguenotsathome，beforehesupportedtheGermanProtestantsagainsttheEmperor。Greataswerethehopeswhichhadbeenformedfromthisalliance，theywereyetequalledbythedisappointmentoftheevent。

Mansfeld，deprivedofallsupport，remainedinactiveontheLowerRhine；

andDukeChristianofBrunswick，afteranunsuccessfulcampaign，wasasecondtimedrivenoutofGermany。AfreshirruptionofBethlenGaborintoMoravia，frustratedbythewantofsupportfromtheGermans，terminated，likealltherest，inaformalpeacewiththeEmperor。

TheUnionwasnomore；noProtestantprincewasinarms；

andonthefrontiersofLowerGermany，theBavarianGeneralTilly，attheheadofavictoriousarmy，encampedintheProtestantterritory。

ThemovementsoftheDukeofBrunswickhaddrawnhimintothisquarter，andevenintothecircleofLowerSaxony，whenhemadehimselfmasteroftheAdministrator’smagazinesatLippstadt。Thenecessityofobservingthisenemy，andpreventinghimfromnewinroads，wasthepretextassignedforcontinuingTilly’sstayinthecountry。

But，intruth，bothMansfeldandDukeChristianhad，fromwantofmoney，disbandedtheirarmies，andCountTillyhadnoenemytodread。Why，then，stillburdenthecountrywithhispresence？

Itisdifficult，amidsttheuproarofcontendingparties，todistinguishthevoiceoftruth；butcertainlyitwasmatterforalarmthattheLeaguedidnotlaydownitsarms。TheprematurerejoicingsoftheRomanCatholics，too，werecalculatedtoincreaseapprehension。

TheEmperorandtheLeaguestoodarmedandvictoriousinGermanywithoutapowertoopposethem，shouldtheyventuretoattacktheProtestantstatesandtoannulthereligioustreaty。

HadFerdinandbeeninrealityfarfromdisposedtoabusehisconquests，stillthedefencelesspositionoftheProtestantswasmostlikelytosuggestthetemptation。Obsoleteconventionscouldnotbindaprincewhothoughtthatheowedalltoreligion，andbelievedthatareligiouscreedwouldsanctifyanydeed，howeverviolent。UpperGermanywasalreadyoverpowered。

LowerGermanyalonecouldcheckhisdespoticauthority。HeretheProtestantsstillpredominated；thechurchhadbeenforciblydeprivedofmostofitsendowments；andthepresentappearedafavourablemomentforrecoveringtheselostpossessions。AgreatpartofthestrengthoftheLowerGermanprincesconsistedintheseChapters，andthepleaofrestoringitsowntothechurch，affordedanexcellentpretextforweakeningtheseprinces。

Unpardonablewouldhavebeentheirnegligence，hadtheyremainedinactiveinthisdanger。TheremembranceoftheravageswhichTilly’sarmyhadcommittedinLowerSaxonywastoorecentnottoarousetheEstatestomeasuresofdefence。Withallhaste，thecircleofLowerSaxonybegantoarmitself。Extraordinarycontributionswerelevied，troopscollected，andmagazinesfilled。NegociationsforsubsidiesweresetonfootwithVenice，Holland，andEngland。Theydeliberated，too，whatpowershouldbeplacedattheheadoftheconfederacy。

ThekingsoftheSoundandtheBaltic，thenaturalalliesofthiscircle，wouldnotseewithindifferencetheEmperortreatingitasaconqueror，andestablishinghimselfastheirneighbourontheshoresoftheNorthSea。

ThetwofoldinterestsofreligionandpolicyurgedthemtoputastoptohisprogressinLowerGermany。ChristianIV。ofDenmark，asDukeofHolstein，washimselfaprinceofthiscircle，andbyconsiderationsequallypowerful，GustavusAdolphusofSwedenwasinducedtojointheconfederacy。

ThesetwokingsviedwitheachotherforthehonourofdefendingLowerSaxony，andofopposingtheformidablepowerofAustria。Eachofferedtoraiseawell-disciplinedarmy，andtoleaditinperson。HisvictoriouscampaignsagainstMoscowandPolandgaveweighttothepromisesoftheKingofSweden。

TheshoresoftheBalticwerefullofthenameofGustavus。

ButthefameofhisrivalexcitedtheenvyoftheDanishmonarch；

andthemoresuccesshepromisedhimselfinthiscampaign，thelessdisposedwashetoshowanyfavourtohisenviedneighbour。

BothlaidtheirconditionsandplansbeforetheEnglishministry，andChristianIV。finallysucceededinoutbiddinghisrival。

GustavusAdolphus，forhisownsecurity，haddemandedthecessionofsomeplacesofstrengthinGermany，wherehehimselfhadnoterritories，toafford，incaseofneed，aplaceofrefugeforhistroops。

ChristianIV。possessedHolsteinandJutland，throughwhich，intheeventofadefeat，hecouldalwayssecurearetreat。

Eagertogetthestartofhiscompetitor，theKingofDenmarkhastenedtotakethefield。AppointedgeneralissimoofthecircleofLowerSaxony，hesoonhadanarmyof60，000meninmotion；theadministratorofMagdeburg，andtheDukesofBrunswickandMecklenburgh，enteredintoanalliancewithhim。EncouragedbythehopeofassistancefromEngland，andthepossessionofsolargeaforce，heflatteredhimselfheshouldbeabletoterminatethewarinasinglecampaign。

AtVienna，itwasofficiallynotifiedthattheonlyobjectofthesepreparationswastheprotectionofthecircle，andthemaintenanceofpeace。ButthenegociationswithHolland，England，andevenFrance，theextraordinaryexertionsofthecircle，andtheraisingofsoformidableanarmy，seemedtohavesomethingmoreinviewthandefensiveoperations，andtocontemplatenothinglessthanthecompleterestorationoftheElectorPalatine，andthehumiliationofthedreadedpowerofAustria。

Afternegociations，exhortations，commands，andthreatshadinvainbeenemployedbytheEmperorinordertoinducetheKingofDenmarkandthecircleofLowerSaxonytolaydowntheirarms，hostilitiescommenced，andLowerGermanybecamethetheatreofwar。CountTilly，marchingalongtheleftbankoftheWeser，madehimselfmasterofallthepassesasfarasMinden。AfteranunsuccessfulattackonNieuburg，hecrossedtheriverandoverrantheprincipalityofCalemberg，inwhichhequarteredhistroops。Thekingconductedhisoperationsontherightbankoftheriver，andspreadhisforcesovertheterritoriesofBrunswick，buthavingweakenedhismainbodybytoopowerfuldetachments，hecouldnotengageinanyenterpriseofimportance。

Awareofhisopponent’ssuperiority，heavoidedadecisiveactionasanxiouslyasthegeneraloftheLeaguesoughtit。

WiththeexceptionofthetroopsfromtheSpanishNetherlands，whichhadpouredintotheLowerPalatinate，theEmperorhadhithertomadeuseonlyofthearmsofBavariaandtheLeagueinGermany。

Maximilianconductedthewarasexecutorofthebanoftheempire，andTilly，whocommandedthearmyofexecution，wasintheBavarianservice。

TheEmperorowedsuperiorityinthefieldtoBavariaandtheLeague，andhisfortuneswereintheirhands。Thisdependenceontheirgoodwill，butillaccordedwiththegrandschemes，whichthebrilliantcommencementofthewarhadledtheimperialcabinettoform。

HoweveractivetheLeaguehadshownitselfintheEmperor’sdefence，whiletherebyitsecureditsownwelfare，itcouldnotbeexpectedthatitwouldenterasreadilyintohisviewsofconquest。Or，iftheystillcontinuedtolendtheirarmiesforthatpurpose，itwastoomuchtobefearedthattheywouldsharewiththeEmperornothingbutgeneralodium，whiletheyappropriatedtothemselvesalladvantages。AstrongarmyunderhisownorderscouldalonefreehimfromthisdebasingdependenceuponBavaria，andrestoretohimhisformerpre-eminenceinGermany。Butthewarhadalreadyexhaustedtheimperialdominions，andtheywereunequaltotheexpenseofsuchanarmament。Inthesecircumstances，nothingcouldbemorewelcometotheEmperorthantheproposalwithwhichoneofhisofficerssurprisedhim。

ThiswasCountWallenstein，anexperiencedofficer，andtherichestnoblemaninBohemia。FromhisearliestyouthhehadbeenintheserviceoftheHouseofAustria，andseveralcampaignsagainsttheTurks，Venetians，Bohemians，Hungarians，andTransylvanianshadestablishedhisreputation。HewaspresentascolonelatthebattleofPrague，andafterwards，asmajor-general，haddefeatedaHungarianforceinMoravia。TheEmperor’sgratitudewasequaltohisservices，andalargeshareoftheconfiscatedestatesoftheBohemianinsurgentswastheirreward。Possessedofimmenseproperty，excitedbyambitiousviews，confidentinhisowngoodfortune，andstillmoreencouragedbytheexistingstateofcircumstances，heoffered，athisownexpenseandthatofhisfriends，toraiseandclotheanarmyfortheEmperor，andevenundertookthecostofmaintainingit，ifhewereallowedtoaugmentitto50，000men。

Theprojectwasuniversallyridiculedasthechimericaloffspringofavisionarybrain；buttheofferwashighlyvaluable，ifitspromisesshouldbebutpartiallyfulfilled。CertaincirclesinBohemiawereassignedtohimasdepots，withauthoritytoappointhisownofficers。

Inafewmonthshehad20，000menunderarms，withwhich，quittingtheAustrianterritories，hesoonafterwardsappearedonthefrontiersofLowerSaxonywith30，000。TheEmperorhadlentthisarmamentnothingbuthisname。Thereputationofthegeneral，theprospectofrapidpromotion，andthehopeofplunder，attractedtohisstandardadventurersfromallquartersofGermany；

andevensovereignprinces，stimulatedbythedesireofgloryorofgain，offeredtoraiseregimentsfortheserviceofAustria。

Now，therefore，forthefirsttimeinthiswar，animperialarmyappearedinGermany；——aneventwhichifitwasmenacingtotheProtestants，wasscarcelymoreacceptabletotheCatholics。WallensteinhadorderstounitehisarmywiththetroopsoftheLeague，andinconjunctionwiththeBavariangeneraltoattacktheKingofDenmark。

ButlongjealousofTilly’sfame，heshowednodispositiontosharewithhimthelaurelsofthecampaign，orinthesplendourofhisrival’sachievementstodimthelustreofhisown。Hisplanofoperationswastosupportthelatter，buttoactentirelyindependentofhim。

Ashehadnotresources，likeTilly，forsupplyingthewantsofhisarmy，hewasobligedtomarchhistroopsintofertilecountrieswhichhadnotasyetsufferedfromwar。Disobeying，therefore，theordertoformajunctionwiththegeneraloftheLeague，hemarchedintotheterritoriesofHalberstadtandMagdeburg，andatDessaumadehimselfmasteroftheElbe。Allthelandsoneitherbankofthisriverwereathiscommand，andfromthemhecouldeitherattacktheKingofDenmarkintherear，or，ifprudent，entertheterritoriesofthatprince。

ChristianIV。wasfullyawareofthedangerofhissituationbetweentwosuchpowerfularmies。HehadalreadybeenjoinedbytheadministratorofHalberstadt，whohadlatelyreturnedfromHolland；henowalsoacknowledgedMansfeld，whompreviouslyhehadrefusedtorecognise，andsupportedhimtothebestofhisability。Mansfeldamplyrequitedthisservice。HealonekeptatbaythearmyofWallensteinupontheElbe，andpreventeditsjunctionwiththatofTilly，andacombinedattackontheKingofDenmark。Notwithstandingtheenemy’ssuperiority，thisintrepidgeneralevenapproachedthebridgeofDessau，andventuredtoentrenchhimselfinpresenceoftheimperiallines。

ButattackedintherearbythewholeforceoftheImperialists，hewasobligedtoyieldtosuperiornumbers，andtoabandonhispostwiththelossof3，000killed。Afterthisdefeat，MansfeldwithdrewintoBrandenburg，wherehesoonrecruitedandreinforcedhisarmy；

andsuddenlyturnedintoSilesia，withtheviewofmarchingfromthenceintoHungary；and，inconjunctionwithBethlenGabor，carryingthewarintotheheartofAustria。AstheAustriandominionsinthatquarterwereentirelydefenceless，WallensteinreceivedimmediateorderstoleavetheKingofDenmark，andifpossibletointerceptMansfeld’sprogressthroughSilesia。

ThediversionwhichthismovementofMansfeldhadmadeintheplansofWallenstein，enabledthekingtodetachapartofhisforceintoWestphalia，toseizethebishopricsofMunsterandOsnaburg。

Tocheckthismovement，TillysuddenlymovedfromtheWeser；

buttheoperationsofDukeChristian，whothreatenedtheterritoriesoftheLeaguewithaninroadinthedirectionofHesse，andtoremovethithertheseatofwar，recalledhimasrapidlyfromWestphalia。

Inordertokeepopenhiscommunicationwiththeseprovinces，andtopreventthejunctionoftheenemywiththeLandgraveofHesse，TillyhastilyseizedallthetenablepostsontheWerhaandFulda，andtookupastrongpositioninMinden，atthefootoftheHessianMountains，andattheconfluenceoftheseriverswiththeWeser。HesoonmadehimselfmasterofGoettingen，thekeyofBrunswickandHesse，andwasmeditatingasimilarattackuponNordheim，whenthekingadvanceduponhimwithhiswholearmy。Afterthrowingintothisplacethenecessarysuppliesforalongsiege，thelatterattemptedtoopenanewpassagethroughEichsfeldandThuringia，intotheterritoriesoftheLeague。

HehadalreadyreachedDuderstadt，whenTilly，byforcedmarches，cameupwithhim。AsthearmyofTilly，whichhadbeenreinforcedbysomeofWallenstein’sregiments，wassuperiorinnumberstohisown，theking，toavoidabattle，retreatedtowardsBrunswick。

ButTillyincessantlyharassedhisretreat，andafterthreedays’skirmishing，hewasatlengthobligedtoawaittheenemynearthevillageofLutterinBarenberg。TheDanesbegantheattackwithgreatbravery，andthricedidtheirintrepidmonarchleadtheminpersonagainsttheenemy；butatlengththesuperiornumbersanddisciplineoftheImperialistsprevailed，andthegeneraloftheLeagueobtainedacompletevictory。

TheDaneslostsixtystandards，andtheirwholeartillery，baggage，andammunition。Severalofficersofdistinctionandabout4，000menwerekilledinthefieldofbattle；andseveralcompaniesoffoot，intheflight，whohadthrownthemselvesintothetown-houseofLutter，laiddowntheirarmsandsurrenderedtotheconqueror。

Thekingfledwithhiscavalry，andsooncollectedthewreckofhisarmywhichhadsurvivedthisseriousdefeat。Tillypursuedhisvictory，madehimselfmasteroftheWeserandBrunswick，andforcedthekingtoretireintoBremen。Renderedmorecautiousbydefeat，thelatternowstooduponthedefensive；anddeterminedatalleventstopreventtheenemyfromcrossingtheElbe。Butwhilehethrewgarrisonsintoeverytenableplace，hereducedhisowndiminishedarmytoinactivity；

andoneafteranotherhisscatteredtroopswereeitherdefeatedordispersed。

TheforcesoftheLeague，incommandoftheWeser，spreadthemselvesalongtheElbeandHavel，andeverywheredrovetheDanesbeforethem。

TillyhimselfcrossingtheElbepenetratedwithhisvictoriousarmyintoBrandenburg，whileWallensteinenteredHolsteintoremovetheseatofwartotheking’sowndominions。

ThisgeneralhadjustreturnedfromHungarywhitherhehadpursuedMansfeld，withoutbeingabletoobstructhismarch，orpreventhisjunctionwithBethlenGabor。Constantlypersecutedbyfortune，butalwayssuperiortohisfate，Mansfeldhadmadehiswayagainstcountlessdifficulties，throughSilesiaandHungarytoTransylvania，where，afterall，hewasnotverywelcome。RelyingupontheassistanceofEngland，andapowerfuldiversioninLowerSaxony，GaborhadagainbrokenthetrucewiththeEmperor。Butinplaceoftheexpecteddiversioninhisfavour，MansfeldhaddrawnuponhimselfthewholestrengthofWallenstein，andinsteadofbringing，required，pecuniaryassistance。ThewantofconcertintheProtestantcounselscooledGabor’sardour；andhehastened，asusual，toavertthecomingstormbyaspeedypeace。Firmlydetermined，however，tobreakit，withthefirstrayofhope，hedirectedMansfeldinthemeantimetoapplyforassistancetoVenice。

CutofffromGermany，andunabletosupporttheweakremnantofhistroopsinHungary，Mansfeldsoldhisartilleryandbaggagetrain，anddisbandedhissoldiers。Withafewfollowers，heproceededthroughBosniaandDalmatia，towardsVenice。Newschemesswelledhisbosom；buthiscareerwasended。

Fate，whichhadsorestlesslysportedwithhimthroughout，nowpreparedforhimapeacefulgraveinDalmatia。DeathovertookhiminthevicinityofZarain1626，andashorttimebeforehimdiedthefaithfulcompanionofhisfortunes，Christian，DukeofBrunswick——

twomenworthyofimmortality，hadtheybutbeenassuperiortotheirtimesastheyweretotheiradversities。

TheKingofDenmark，withhiswholearmy，wasunabletocopewithTillyalone；

muchless，therefore，withashatteredforcecouldheholdhisgroundagainstthetwoimperialgenerals。TheDanesretiredfromalltheirpostsontheWeser，theElbe，andtheHavel，andthearmyofWallensteinpouredlikeatorrentintoBrandenburg，Mecklenburg，HolsteinandSleswick。

Thatgeneral，tooproudtoactinconjunctionwithanother，haddispatchedTillyacrosstheElbe，towatch，ashegaveout，themotionsoftheDutchinthatquarter；butinrealitythathemightterminatethewaragainsttheking，andreapforhimselfthefruitsofTilly’sconquests。ChristianhadnowlostallhisfortressesintheGermanStates，withtheexceptionofGluckstadt；

hisarmiesweredefeatedordispersed；noassistancecamefromGermany；

fromEngland，littleconsolation；whilehisconfederatesinLowerSaxonywereatthemercyoftheconqueror。TheLandgraveofHesseCasselhadbeenforcedbyTilly，soonafterthebattleofLutter，torenouncetheDanishalliance。Wallenstein’sformidableappearancebeforeBerlinreducedtheElectorofBrandenburghtosubmission，andcompelledhimtorecognise，aslegitimate，Maximilian’stitletothePalatineElectorate。ThegreaterpartofMecklenburghwasnowoverrunbyimperialtroops；andbothdukes，asadherentsoftheKingofDenmark，placedunderthebanoftheempire，anddrivenfromtheirdominions。

ThedefenceoftheGermanlibertiesagainstillegalencroachments，waspunishedasacrimedeservingthelossofalldignitiesandterritories；

andyetthiswasbutthepreludetothestillmorecryingenormitieswhichshortlyfollowed。

ThesecrethowWallensteinhadpurposedtofulfilhisextravagantdesignswasnowmanifest。HehadlearnedthelessonfromCountMansfeld；

butthescholarsurpassedhismaster。Ontheprinciplethatwarmustsupportwar，MansfeldandtheDukeofBrunswickhadsubsistedtheirtroopsbycontributionsleviedindiscriminatelyonfriendandenemy；butthispredatorylifewasattendedwithalltheinconvenienceandinsecuritywhichaccompanyrobbery。

Likeafugitivebanditti，theywereobligedtostealthroughexasperatedandvigilantenemies；toroamfromoneendofGermanytoanother；

towatchtheiropportunitywithanxiety；andtoabandonthemostfertileterritorieswhenevertheyweredefendedbyasuperiorarmy。

IfMansfeldandDukeChristianhaddonesuchgreatthingsinthefaceofthesedifficulties，whatmightnotbeexpectediftheobstacleswereremoved；whenthearmyraisedwasnumerousenoughtooveraweinitselfthemostpowerfulstatesoftheempire；

whenthenameoftheEmperorinsuredimpunitytoeveryoutrage；andwhen，underthehighestauthority，andattheheadofanoverwhelmingforce，thesamesystemofwarfarewaspursued，whichthesetwoadventurershadhithertoadoptedattheirownrisk，andwithonlyanuntrainedmultitude？

WallensteinhadallthisinviewwhenhemadehisboldoffertotheEmperor，whichnowseemedextravaganttonoone。Themorehisarmywasaugmented，thelesscausewastheretofearforitssubsistence，becauseitcouldirresistiblybeardownupontherefractorystates；themoreviolentitsoutrages，themoreprobablewasimpunity。Towardshostilestatesithadthepleaofright；towardsthefavourablydisposeditcouldallegenecessity。Theinequality，too，withwhichitdealtoutitsoppressions，preventedanydangerousunionamongthestates；

whiletheexhaustionoftheirterritoriesdeprivedthemofthepowerofvengeance。ThusthewholeofGermanybecameakindofmagazinefortheimperialarmy，andtheEmperorwasenabledtodealwiththeotherstatesasabsolutelyaswithhisownhereditarydominions。

Universalwastheclamourforredressbeforetheimperialthrone；

buttherewasnothingtofearfromtherevengeoftheinjuredprinces，solongastheyappealedforjustice。ThegeneraldiscontentwasdirectedequallyagainsttheEmperor，whohadlenthisnametothesebarbarities，andthegeneralwhoexceededhispower，andopenlyabusedtheauthorityofhismaster。TheyappliedtotheEmperorforprotectionagainsttheoutragesofhisgeneral；butWallensteinhadnosoonerfelthimselfabsoluteinthearmy，thanhethrewoffhisobediencetohissovereign。

Theexhaustionoftheenemymadeaspeedypeaceprobable；

yetWallensteincontinuedtoaugmenttheimperialarmiesuntiltheywereatleast100，000menstrong。Numberlesscommissionstocolonelciesandinferiorcommands，theregalpompofthecommander-in-chief，immoderatelargessestohisfavourites，(forhenevergavelessthanathousandflorins，)enormoussumslavishedincorruptingthecourtatVienna——allthishadbeeneffectedwithoutburdeningtheEmperor。

TheseimmensesumswereraisedbythecontributionsleviedfromthelowerGermanprovinces，wherenodistinctionwasmadebetweenfriendandfoe；

andtheterritoriesofallprincesweresubjectedtothesamesystemofmarchingandquartering，ofextortionandoutrage。

Ifcreditistobegiventoanextravagantcontemporarystatement，Wallenstein，duringhissevenyearscommand，hadexactednotlessthansixtythousandmillionsofdollarsfromonehalfofGermany。

Thegreaterhisextortions，thegreatertherewardsofhissoldiers，andthegreatertheconcoursetohisstandard，fortheworldalwaysfollowsfortune。Hisarmiesflourishedwhileallthestatesthroughwhichtheypassedwithered。Whatcaredheforthedetestationofthepeople，andthecomplaintsofprinces？Hisarmyadoredhim，andtheveryenormityofhisguiltenabledhimtobiddefiancetoitsconsequences。

ItwouldbeunjusttoFerdinand，werewetolayalltheseirregularitiestohischarge。HadheforeseenthathewasabandoningtheGermanStatestothemercyofhisofficer，hewouldhavebeensensiblehowdangeroustohimselfsoabsoluteageneralwouldprove。Theclosertheconnexionbecamebetweenthearmy，andtheleaderfromwhomflowedfavourandfortune，themorethetieswhichunitedbothtotheEmperorwererelaxed。

Everything，itistrue，wasdoneinthenameofthelatter；

butWallensteinonlyavailedhimselfofthesuprememajestyoftheEmperortocrushtheauthorityofotherstates。Hisobjectwastodepresstheprincesoftheempire，todestroyallgradationofrankbetweenthemandtheEmperor，andtoelevatethepowerofthelatteraboveallcompetition。

IftheEmperorwereabsoluteinGermany，whothenwouldbeequaltothemanintrustedwiththeexecutionofhiswill？TheheighttowhichWallensteinhadraisedtheimperialauthorityastonishedeventheEmperorhimself；butasthegreatnessofthemasterwasentirelytheworkoftheservant，thecreationofWallensteinwouldnecessarilysinkagainintonothinguponthewithdrawalofitscreativehand。Notwithoutanobject，therefore，didWallensteinlabourtopoisonthemindsoftheGermanprincesagainsttheEmperor。ThemoreviolenttheirhatredofFerdinand，themoreindispensabletotheEmperorwouldbecomethemanwhoalonecouldrendertheirill-willpowerless。Hisdesignunquestionablywas，thathissovereignshouldstandinfearofnooneinallGermany——

besideshimself，thesourceandengineofthisdespoticpower。

Asasteptowardsthisend，WallensteinnowdemandedthecessionofMecklenburg，tobeheldinpledgetilltherepaymentofhisadvancesforthewar。FerdinandhadalreadycreatedhimDukeofFriedland，apparentlywiththeviewofexaltinghisowngeneraloverBavaria；

butanordinaryrecompensewouldnotsatisfyWallenstein’sambition。

Invainwasthisnewdemand，whichcouldbegrantedonlyattheexpenseoftwoprincesoftheempire，activelyresistedintheImperialCouncil；

invaindidtheSpaniards，whohadlongbeenoffendedbyhispride，opposehiselevation。ThepowerfulsupportwhichWallensteinhadpurchasedfromtheimperialcouncillorsprevailed，andFerdinandwasdetermined，atwhatevercost，tosecurethedevotionofsoindispensableaminister。

Foraslightoffence，oneoftheoldestGermanhouseswasexpelledfromtheirhereditarydominions，thatacreatureoftheEmperormightbeenrichedbytheirspoils(1628)。

WallensteinnowbegantoassumethetitleofgeneralissimooftheEmperorbyseaandland。Wismarwastaken，andafirmfootinggainedontheBaltic。

ShipswererequiredfromPolandandtheHansetownstocarrythewartotheothersideoftheBaltic；topursuetheDanesintotheheartoftheirowncountry，andtocompelthemtoapeacewhichmightpreparethewaytomoreimportantconquests。ThecommunicationbetweentheLowerGermanStatesandtheNorthernpowerswouldbebroken，couldtheEmperorplacehimselfbetweenthem，andencompassGermany，fromtheAdriatictotheSound，(theinterveningkingdomofPolandbeingalreadydependentonhim，)withanunbrokenlineofterritory。

IfsuchwastheEmperor’splan，Wallensteinhadapeculiarinterestinitsexecution。ThesepossessionsontheBalticshould，heintended，formthefirstfoundationofapower，whichhadlongbeentheobjectofhisambition，andwhichshouldenablehimtothrowoffhisdependenceontheEmperor。

Toeffectthisobject，itwasofextremeimportancetogainpossessionofStralsund，atownontheBaltic。Itsexcellentharbour，andtheshortpassagefromittotheSwedishandDanishcoasts，peculiarlyfitteditforanavalstationinawarwiththesepowers。

Thistown，thesixthoftheHanseaticLeague，enjoyedgreatprivilegesundertheDukeofPomerania，andtotallyindependentofDenmark，hadtakennoshareinthewar。Butneitheritsneutrality，noritsprivileges，couldprotectitagainsttheencroachmentsofWallenstein，whenhehadoncecastalonginglookuponit。

Therequesthemade，thatStralsundshouldreceiveanimperialgarrison，hadbeenfirmlyandhonourablyrejectedbythemagistracy，whoalsorefusedhiscunninglydemandedpermissiontomarchhistroopsthroughthetown，Wallenstein，therefore，nowproposedtobesiegeit。

TheindependenceofStralsund，assecuringthefreenavigationoftheBaltic，wasequallyimportanttothetwoNorthernkings。Acommondangerovercameatlasttheprivatejealousieswhichhadlongdividedtheseprinces。

InatreatyconcludedatCopenhagenin1628，theyboundthemselvestoassistStralsundwiththeircombinedforce，andtoopposeincommoneveryforeignpowerwhichshouldappearintheBalticwithhostileviews。

ChristianIV。alsothrewasufficientgarrisonintoStralsund，andbyhispersonalpresenceanimatedthecourageofthecitizens。

SomeshipsofwarwhichSigismund，KingofPoland，hadsenttotheassistanceoftheimperialgeneral，weresunkbytheDanishfleet；

andasLubeckrefusedhimtheuseofitsshipping，thisimperialgeneralissimooftheseahadnotevenshipsenoughtoblockadethissingleharbour。

Nothingcouldappearmoreadventurousthantoattempttheconquestofastronglyfortifiedseaportwithoutfirstblockadingitsharbour。

Wallenstein，however，whoasyethadneverexperiencedacheck，wishedtoconquernatureitself，andtoperformimpossibilities。Stralsund，opentothesea，continuedtobesuppliedwithprovisionsandreinforcements；

yetWallensteinmaintainedhisblockadeonthelandside，andendeavoured，byboastingmenaces，tosupplyhiswantofrealstrength。

"Iwilltakethistown，"saidhe，"thoughitwerefastenedbyachaintotheheavens。"TheEmperorhimself，whomighthavecausetoregretanenterprisewhichpromisednoverygloriousresult，joyfullyavailedhimselfoftheapparentsubmissionandacceptablepropositionsoftheinhabitants，toorderthegeneraltoretirefromthetown。Wallensteindespisedthecommand，andcontinuedtoharassthebesiegedbyincessantassaults。

AstheDanishgarrison，alreadymuchreduced，wasunequaltothefatiguesofthisprolongeddefence，andthekingwasunabletodetachanyfurthertroopstotheirsupport，Stralsund，withChristian’sconsent，threwitselfundertheprotectionoftheKingofSweden。TheDanishcommanderleftthetowntomakewayforaSwedishgovernor，whogloriouslydefendedit。

HereWallenstein’sgoodfortuneforsookhim；and，forthefirsttime，hisprideexperiencedthehumiliationofrelinquishinghisprey，afterthelossofmanymonthsandof12，000men。ThenecessitytowhichhereducedthetownofapplyingforprotectiontoSweden，laidthefoundationofaclosealliancebetweenGustavusAdolphusandStralsund，whichgreatlyfacilitatedtheentranceoftheSwedesintoGermany。

HithertoinvariablesuccesshadattendedthearmsoftheEmperorandtheLeague，andChristianIV。，defeatedinGermany，hadsoughtrefugeinhisownislands；buttheBalticcheckedthefurtherprogressoftheconquerors。Thewantofshipsnotonlystoppedthepursuitoftheking，butendangeredtheirpreviousacquisitions。Theunionofthetwonorthernmonarchswasmosttobedreaded，because，solongasitlasted，iteffectuallypreventedtheEmperorandhisgeneralfromacquiringafootingontheBaltic，oreffectingalandinginSweden。Butiftheycouldsucceedindissolvingthisunion，andespeciallysecuringthefriendshipoftheDanishking，theymighthopetooverpowertheinsulatedforceofSweden。

Thedreadoftheinterferenceofforeignpowers，theinsubordinationoftheProtestantsinhisownstates，andstillmorethestormwhichwasgraduallydarkeningalongthewholeofProtestantGermany，inclinedtheEmperortopeace，whichhisgeneral，fromoppositemotives，wasequallydesiroustoeffect。Farfromwishingforastateofthingswhichwouldreducehimfromthemeridianofgreatnessandglorytotheobscurityofprivatelife，heonlywishedtochangethetheatreofwar，andbyapartialpeacetoprolongthegeneralconfusion。ThefriendshipofDenmark，whoseneighbourhehadbecomeasDukeofMecklenburgh，wasmostimportantforthesuccessofhisambitiousviews；andheresolved，evenatthesacrificeofhissovereign’sinterests，tosecureitsalliance。

BythetreatyofCopenhagen，ChristianIV。hadexpresslyengagednottoconcludeaseparatepeacewiththeEmperor，withouttheconsentofSweden。Notwithstanding，Wallenstein’spropositionwasreadilyreceivedbyhim。InaconferenceatLubeckin1629，fromwhichWallenstein，withstudiedcontempt，excludedtheSwedishambassadorswhocametointercedeforMecklenburgh，alltheconqueststakenbytheimperialistswererestoredtotheDanes。Theconditionsimposeduponthekingwere，thatheshouldinterferenofartherwiththeaffairsofGermanythanwascalledforbyhischaracterofDukeofHolstein；

thatheshouldonnopretextharasstheChaptersofLowerGermany，andshouldleavetheDukesofMecklenburghtotheirfate。

ByChristianhimselfhadtheseprincesbeeninvolvedinthewarwiththeEmperor；henowsacrificedthem，togainthefavouroftheusurperoftheirterritories。AmongthemotiveswhichhadengagedhiminawarwiththeEmperor，nottheleastwastherestorationofhisrelation，theElectorPalatine——yetthenameofthatunfortunateprincewasnotevenmentionedinthetreaty；whileinoneofitsarticlesthelegitimacyoftheBavarianelectionwasexpresslyrecognised。

ThusmeanlyandingloriouslydidChristianIV。retirefromthefield。

Ferdinandhaditnowinhispower，forthesecondtime，tosecurethetranquillityofGermany；anditdependedsolelyonhiswillwhetherthetreatywithDenmarkshouldorshouldnotbethebasisofageneralpeace。Fromeveryquarterarosethecryoftheunfortunate，petitioningforanendoftheirsufferings；thecrueltiesofhissoldiers，andtherapacityofhisgenerals，hadexceededallbounds。Germany，laidwastebythedesolatingbandsofMansfeldandtheDukeofBrunswick，andbythestillmoreterriblehordesofTillyandWallenstein，layexhausted，bleeding，wasted，andsighingforrepose。Ananxiousdesireforpeacewasfeltbyallconditions，andbytheEmperorhimself；involvedashewasinawarwithFranceinUpperItaly，exhaustedbyhispastwarfareinGermany，andapprehensiveofthedayofreckoningwhichwasapproaching。

But，unfortunately，theconditionsonwhichalonethetworeligiouspartieswerewillingrespectivelytosheaththesword，wereirreconcileable。

TheRomanCatholicswishedtoterminatethewartotheirownadvantage；

theProtestantsadvancedequalpretensions。TheEmperor，insteadofunitingbothpartiesbyaprudentmoderation，sidedwithone；

andthusGermanywasagainplungedinthehorrorsofabloodywar。

FromtheverycloseoftheBohemiantroubles，Ferdinandhadcarriedonacounterreformationinhishereditarydominions，inwhich，however，fromregardtosomeoftheProtestantEstates，heproceeded，atfirst，withmoderation。ButthevictoriesofhisgeneralsinLowerGermanyencouragedhimtothrowoffallreserve。AccordinglyhehaditintimatedtoalltheProtestantsinthesedominions，thattheymusteitherabandontheirreligion，ortheirnativecountry，——abitteranddreadfulalternative，whichexcitedthemostviolentcommotionsamonghisAustriansubjects。

InthePalatinate，immediatelyaftertheexpulsionofFrederick，theProtestantreligionhadbeensuppressed，anditsprofessorsexpelledfromtheUniversityofHeidelberg。

Allthiswasbutthepreludetogreaterchanges。IntheElectoralCongressheldatMuehlhausen，theRomanCatholicshaddemandedoftheEmperorthatallthearchbishoprics，bishoprics，mediateandimmediate，abbaciesandmonasteries，which，sincetheDietofAugsburg，hadbeensecularizedbytheProtestants，shouldberestoredtothechurch，inordertoindemnifythemforthelossesandsufferingsinthewar。

ToaRomanCatholicprincesozealousasFerdinandwas，suchahintwasnotlikelytobeneglected；buthestillthoughtitwouldbeprematuretoarousethewholeProtestantsofGermanybysodecisiveastep。

NotasingleProtestantprincebutwouldbedeprived，bythisrevocationofthereligiousfoundations，ofapartofhislands；

forwheretheserevenueshadnotactuallybeendivertedtosecularpurposestheyhadbeenmadeovertotheProtestantchurch。Tothissource，manyprincesowedthechiefpartoftheirrevenuesandimportance。

All，withoutexception，wouldbeirritatedbythisdemandforrestoration。

Thereligioustreatydidnotexpresslydenytheirrighttothesechapters，althoughitdidnotallowit。Butapossessionwhichhadnowbeenheldfornearlyacentury，thesilenceoffourprecedingemperors，andthelawofequity，whichgavethemanequalrightwiththeRomanCatholicstothefoundationsoftheircommonancestors，mightbestronglypleadedbythemasavalidtitle。Besidestheactuallossofpowerandauthority，whichthesurrenderofthesefoundationswouldoccasion，besidestheinevitableconfusionwhichwouldnecessarilyattendit，oneimportantdisadvantagetowhichitwouldlead，was，thattherestorationoftheRomanCatholicbishopswouldincreasethestrengthofthatpartyintheDietbysomanyadditionalvotes。

SuchgrievoussacrificeslikelytofallontheProtestants，madetheEmperorapprehensiveofaformidableopposition；

anduntilthemilitaryardourshouldhavecooledinGermany，hehadnowishtoprovokeapartyformidablebyitsunion，andwhichintheElectorofSaxonyhadapowerfulleader。Heresolved，therefore，totrytheexperimentatfirstonasmallscale，inordertoascertainhowitwaslikelytosucceedonalargerone。Accordingly，someofthefreecitiesinUpperGermany，andtheDukeofWirtemberg，receivedorderstosurrendertotheRomanCatholicsseveraloftheconfiscatedchapters。

ThestateofaffairsinSaxonyenabledtheEmperortomakesomebolderexperimentsinthatquarter。InthebishopricsofMagdeburgandHalberstadt，theProtestantcanonshadnothesitatedtoelectbishopsoftheirownreligion。Bothbishoprics，withtheexceptionofthetownofMagdeburgitself，wereoverrunbythetroopsofWallenstein。Ithappened，moreover，thatbythedeathoftheAdministratorDukeChristianofBrunswick，Halberstadtwasvacant，aswasalsotheArchbishopricofMagdeburgbythedepositionofChristianWilliam，aprinceoftheHouseofBrandenburgh。

FerdinandtookadvantageofthecircumstancetorestoretheseeofHalberstadttoaRomanCatholicbishop，andaprinceofhisownhouse。

Toavoidasimilarcoercion，theChapterofMagdeburghastenedtoelectasonoftheElectorofSaxonyasarchbishop。Butthepope，whowithhisarrogatedauthorityinterferedinthismatter，conferredtheArchbishopricofMagdeburgalsoontheAustrianprince。

Thus，withallhispiouszealforreligion，Ferdinandneverlostsightoftheinterestsofhisfamily。

Atlength，whenthepeaceofLubeckhaddeliveredtheEmperorfromallapprehensionsonthesideofDenmark，andtheGermanProtestantsseemedentirelypowerless，theLeaguebecominglouderandmoreurgentinitsdemands，Ferdinand，in1629，signedtheEdictofRestitution，(sofamousbyitsdisastrousconsequences，)whichhehadpreviouslylaidbeforethefourRomanCatholicelectorsfortheirapprobation。

Inthepreamble，heclaimedtheprerogative，inrightofhisimperialauthority，tointerpretthemeaningofthereligioustreaty，theambiguitiesofwhichhadalreadycausedsomanydisputes，andtodecideassupremearbiterandjudgebetweenthecontendingparties。

Thisprerogativehefoundeduponthepracticeofhisancestors，anditspreviousrecognitionevenbyProtestantstates。SaxonyhadactuallyacknowledgedthisrightoftheEmperor；anditnowbecameevidenthowdeeplythiscourthadinjuredtheProtestantcausebyitsdependenceontheHouseofAustria。Butthoughthemeaningofthereligioustreatywasreallyambiguous，asacenturyofreligiousdisputessufficientlyproved，yetfortheEmperor，whomustbeeitheraProtestantoraRomanCatholic，andthereforeaninterestedparty，toassumetherightofdecidingbetweenthedisputants，wasclearlyaviolationofanessentialarticleofthepacification。Hecouldnotbejudgeinhisowncause，withoutreducingthelibertiesoftheempiretoanemptysound。

Andnow，invirtueofthisusurpation，Ferdinanddecided，"Thateverysecularizationofareligiousfoundation，mediateorimmediate，bytheProtestants，subsequenttothedateofthetreaty，wascontrarytoitsspirit，andmustberevokedasabreachofit。"

Hefurtherdecided，"That，bythereligiouspeace，CatholicproprietorsofestateswerenofurtherboundtotheirProtestantsubjectsthantoallowthemfulllibertytoquittheirterritories。"

Inobediencetothisdecision，allunlawfulpossessorsofbenefices——

theProtestantstatesinshortwithoutexception——wereordered，underpainofthebanoftheempire，immediatelytosurrendertheirusurpedpossessionstotheimperialcommissioners。

Thissentenceappliedtonolessthantwoarchbishopricsandtwelvebishoprics，besidesinnumerableabbacies。

TheedictcamelikeathunderboltonthewholeofProtestantGermany；

dreadfuleveninitsimmediateconsequences；butyetmoresofromthefurthercalamitiesitseemedtothreaten。TheProtestantswerenowconvincedthatthesuppressionoftheirreligionhadbeenresolvedonbytheEmperorandtheLeague，andthattheoverthrowofGermanlibertywouldsoonfollow。Theirremonstranceswereunheeded；

thecommissionerswerenamed，andanarmyassembledtoenforceobedience。

TheedictwasfirstputinforceinAugsburg，wherethetreatywasconcluded；

thecitywasagainplacedunderthegovernmentofitsbishop，andsixProtestantchurchesinthetownwereclosed。TheDukeofWirtembergwas，inlikemanner，compelledtosurrenderhisabbacies。Theseseveremeasures，thoughtheyalarmedtheProtestantstates，wereyetinsufficienttorousethemtoanactiveresistance。TheirfearoftheEmperorwastoostrong，andmanyweredisposedtoquietsubmission。

Thehopeofattainingtheirendbygentlemeasures，inducedtheRomanCatholicslikewisetodelayforayeartheexecutionoftheedict，andthissavedtheProtestants；

beforetheendofthatperiod，thesuccessoftheSwedisharmshadtotallychangedthestateofaffairs。

InaDietheldatRatisbon，atwhichFerdinandwaspresentinperson(in1630)，thenecessityoftakingsomemeasuresfortheimmediaterestorationofageneralpeacetoGermany，andfortheremovalofallgrievances，wasdebated。ThecomplaintsoftheRomanCatholicswerescarcelylessnumerousthanthoseoftheProtestants，althoughFerdinandhadflatteredhimselfthatbytheEdictofRestitutionhehadsecuredthemembersoftheLeague，anditsleaderbythegiftoftheelectoraldignity，andthecessionofgreatpartofthePalatinate。

ButthegoodunderstandingbetweentheEmperorandtheprincesoftheLeaguehadrapidlydeclinedsincetheemploymentofWallenstein。

AccustomedtogivelawtoGermany，andeventoswaytheEmperor’sowndestiny，thehaughtyElectorofBavarianowatoncesawhimselfsupplantedbytheimperialgeneral，andwiththatoftheLeague，hisownimportancecompletelyundermined。Anotherhadnowsteppedintoreapthefruitsofhisvictories，andtoburyhispastservicesinoblivion。

Wallenstein’simperiouscharacter，whosedearesttriumphwasindegradingtheauthorityoftheprinces，andgivinganodiouslatitudetothatoftheEmperor，tendednotalittletoaugmenttheirritationoftheElector。DiscontentedwiththeEmperor，anddistrustfulofhisintentions，hehadenteredintoanalliancewithFrance，whichtheothermembersoftheLeagueweresuspectedoffavouring。

AfearoftheEmperor’splansofaggrandizement，anddiscontentwithexistingevils，hadextinguishedamongthemallfeelingsofgratitude。

Wallenstein’sexactionshadbecomealtogetherintolerable。

Brandenburgestimateditslossesattwenty，Pomeraniaatten，HesseCasselatsevenmillionsofdollars，andtherestinproportion。

Thecryforredresswasloud，urgent，anduniversal；allprejudiceswerehushed；RomanCatholicsandProtestantswereunitedonthispoint。

TheterrifiedEmperorwasassailedonallsidesbypetitionsagainstWallenstein，andhisearfilledwiththemostfearfuldescriptionsofhisoutrages。Ferdinandwasnotnaturallycruel。IfnottotallyinnocentoftheatrocitieswhichwerepractisedinGermanyundertheshelterofhisname，hewasignorantoftheirextent；andhewasnotlonginyieldingtotherepresentationoftheprinces，andreducedhisstandingarmybyeighteenthousandcavalry。Whilethisreductiontookplace，theSwedeswereactivelypreparinganexpeditionintoGermany，andthegreaterpartofthedisbandedImperialistsenlistedundertheirbanners。

TheEmperor’sconcessionsonlyencouragedtheElectorofBavariatobolderdemands。SolongastheDukeofFriedlandretainedthesupremecommand，histriumphovertheEmperorwasincomplete。

TheprincesoftheLeagueweremeditatingasevererevengeonWallensteinforthathaughtinesswithwhichhehadtreatedthemallalike。

Hisdismissalwasdemandedbythewholecollegeofelectors，andevenbySpain，withadegreeofunanimityandurgencywhichastonishedtheEmperor。TheanxietywithwhichWallenstein’senemiespressedforhisdismissal，oughttohaveconvincedtheEmperoroftheimportanceofhisservices。Wallenstein，informedofthecabalswhichwereformingagainsthiminRatisbon，lostnotimeinopeningtheeyesoftheEmperortotherealviewsoftheElectorofBavaria。

HehimselfappearedinRatisbon，withapompwhichthrewhismasterintotheshade，andincreasedthehatredofhisopponents。

LongwastheEmperorundecided。Thesacrificedemandedwasapainfulone。

TotheDukeofFriedlandaloneheowedhispreponderance；hefelthowmuchhewouldloseinyieldinghimtotheindignationoftheprinces。

Butatthismoment，unfortunately，hewasunderthenecessityofconciliatingtheElectors。HissonFerdinandhadalreadybeenchosenKingofHungary，andhewasendeavouringtoprocurehiselectionashissuccessorintheempire。Forthispurpose，thesupportofMaximilianwasindispensable。Thisconsiderationwastheweightiest，andtoobligetheElectorofBavariahescruplednottosacrificehismostvaluableservant。

AttheDietatRatisbon，therewerepresentambassadorsfromFrance，empoweredtoadjustthedifferenceswhichseemedtomenaceawarinItalybetweentheEmperorandtheirsovereign。Vincent，DukeofMantuaandMontferrat，dyingwithoutissue，hisnextrelation，Charles，DukeofNevers，hadtakenpossessionofthisinheritance，withoutdoinghomagetotheEmperorasliegelordoftheprincipality。

EncouragedbythesupportofFranceandVenice，herefusedtosurrendertheseterritoriesintothehandsoftheimperialcommissioners，untilhistitletothemshouldbedecided。Ontheotherhand，FerdinandhadtakenuparmsattheinstigationoftheSpaniards，towhom，aspossessorsofMilan，thenearneighbourhoodofavassalofFrancewaspeculiarlyalarming，andwhowelcomedthisprospectofmaking，withtheassistanceoftheEmperor，additionalconquestsinItaly。

InspiteofalltheexertionsofPopeUrbanVIII。toavertawarinthatcountry，FerdinandmarchedaGermanarmyacrosstheAlps，andthrewtheItalianstatesintoageneralconsternation。

HisarmshadbeensuccessfulthroughoutGermany，andexaggeratedfearsrevivedtheoldenapprehensionofAustria’sprojectsofuniversalmonarchy。

AllthehorrorsoftheGermanwarnowspreadlikeadelugeoverthosefavouredcountrieswhichthePowaters；Mantuawastakenbystorm，andthesurroundingdistrictsgivenuptotheravagesofalawlesssoldiery。

ThecurseofItalywasthusaddedtothemaledictionsupontheEmperorwhichresoundedthroughGermany；andevenintheRomanConclave，silentprayerswereofferedforthesuccessoftheProtestantarms。

AlarmedbytheuniversalhatredwhichthisItaliancampaignhaddrawnuponhim，andweariedoutbytheurgentremonstrancesoftheElectors，whozealouslysupportedtheapplicationoftheFrenchambassador，theEmperorpromisedtheinvestituretothenewDukeofMantua。

ThisimportantserviceonthepartofBavaria，ofcourse，requiredanequivalentfromFrance。TheadjustmentofthetreatygavetheenvoysofRichelieu，duringtheirresidenceinRatisbon，thedesiredopportunityofentanglingtheEmperorindangerousintrigues，ofinflamingthediscontentedprincesoftheLeaguestillmorestronglyagainsthim，andofturningtohisdisadvantageallthetransactionsoftheDiet。ForthispurposeRichelieuhadchosenanadmirableinstrumentinFatherJoseph，aCapuchinfriar，whoaccompaniedtheambassadorswithoutexcitingtheleastsuspicion。OneofhisprincipalinstructionswasassiduouslytobringaboutthedismissalofWallenstein。

Withthegeneralwhohadledittovictory，thearmyofAustriawouldloseitsprincipalstrength；manyarmiescouldnotcompensateforthelossofthisindividual。Itwouldthereforebeamasterstrokeofpolicy，attheverymomentwhenavictoriousmonarch，theabsolutemasterofhisoperations，wasarmingagainsttheEmperor，toremovefromtheheadoftheimperialarmiestheonlygeneralwho，byabilityandmilitaryexperience，wasabletocopewiththeFrenchking。

FatherJoseph，intheinterestsofBavaria，undertooktoovercometheirresolutionoftheEmperor，whowasnowinamannerbesiegedbytheSpaniardsandtheElectoralCouncil。"Itwouldbeexpedient，"

hethought，"togratifytheElectorsonthisoccasion，andtherebyfacilitatehisson’selectiontotheRomanCrown。

Thisobjectoncegained，Wallensteincouldatanytimeresumehisformerstation。"TheartfulCapuchinwastoosureofhismantotouchuponthisgroundofconsolation。

ThevoiceofamonkwastoFerdinandII。thevoiceofGod。

"Nothingonearth，"writeshisownconfessor，"wasmoresacredinhiseyesthanapriest。Ifitcouldhappen，heusedtosay，thatanangelandaRegularweretomeethimatthesametimeandplace，theRegularshouldreceivehisfirst，andtheangelhissecondobeisance。"

Wallenstein’sdismissalwasdeterminedupon。

Inreturnforthispiousconcession，theCapuchindexterouslycounteractedtheEmperor’sschemetoprocurefortheKingofHungarythefurtherdignityofKingoftheRomans。Inanexpressclauseofthetreatyjustconcluded，theFrenchministersengagedinthenameoftheirsovereigntoobserveacompleteneutralitybetweentheEmperorandhisenemies；while，atthesametime，RichelieuwasactuallynegociatingwiththeKingofSwedentodeclarewar，andpressinguponhimtheallianceofhismaster。

Thelatter，indeed，disavowedthelieassoonasithadserveditspurpose，andFatherJoseph，confinedtoaconvent，mustatonefortheallegedoffenceofexceedinghisinstructions。Ferdinandperceived，whentoolate，thathehadbeenimposedupon。"AwickedCapuchin，"hewasheardtosay，"hasdisarmedmewithhisrosary，andthrustnothinglessthansixelectoralcrownsintohiscowl。"

ArtificeandtrickerythustriumphedovertheEmperor，atthemomentwhenhewasbelievedtobeomnipotentinGermany，andactuallywassointhefield。Withthelossof18，000men，andofageneralwhoalonewasworthwholearmies，heleftRatisbonwithoutgainingtheendforwhichhehadmadesuchsacrifices。BeforetheSwedeshadvanquishedhiminthefield，MaximilianofBavariaandFatherJosephhadgivenhimamortalblow。AtthismemorableDietatRatisbonthewarwithSwedenwasresolvedupon，andthatofMantuaterminated。VainlyhadtheprincespresentatitintercededfortheDukesofMecklenburgh；

andequallyfruitlesshadbeenanapplicationbytheEnglishambassadorsforapensiontothePalatineFrederick。

Wallensteinwasattheheadofanarmyofnearlyahundredthousandmenwhoadoredhim，whenthesentenceofhisdismissalarrived。

Mostoftheofficerswerehiscreatures:——withthecommonsoldiershishintwaslaw。Hisambitionwasboundless，hisprideindomitable，hisimperiousspiritcouldnotbrookaninjuryunavenged。Onemomentwouldnowprecipitatehimfromtheheightofgrandeurintotheobscurityofaprivatestation。Toexecutesuchasentenceuponsuchadelinquentseemedtorequiremoreaddressthanitcosttoobtainitfromthejudge。

Accordingly，twoofWallenstein’smostintimatefriendswereselectedasheraldsoftheseeviltidings，andinstructedtosoftenthemasmuchaspossible，byflatteringassurancesofthecontinuanceoftheEmperor’sfavour。

Wallensteinhadascertainedthepurportoftheirmessagebeforetheimperialambassadorsarrived。Hehadtimetocollecthimself，andhiscountenanceexhibitedanexternalcalmness，whilegriefandragewerestorminginhisbosom。Hehadmadeuphismindtoobey。

TheEmperor’sdecisionhadtakenhimbysurprisebeforecircumstanceswereripe，orhispreparationscomplete，fortheboldmeasureshehadcontemplated。HisextensiveestateswerescatteredoverBohemiaandMoravia；andbytheirconfiscation，theEmperormightatoncedestroythesinewsofhispower。Helooked，therefore，tothefutureforrevenge；andinthishopehewasencouragedbythepredictionsofanItalianastrologer，wholedhisimperiousspiritlikeachildinleadingstrings。Senihadreadinthestars，thathismaster’sbrilliantcareerwasnotyetended；andthatbrightandgloriousprospectsstillawaitedhim。Itwas，indeed，unnecessarytoconsultthestarstoforetellthatanenemy，GustavusAdolphus，woulderelongrenderindispensabletheservicesofsuchageneralasWallenstein。

"TheEmperorisbetrayed，"saidWallensteintothemessengers；

"Ipitybutforgivehim。ItisplainthatthegraspingspiritoftheBavariandictatestohim。Igrievethat，withsomuchweakness，hehassacrificedme，butIwillobey。"Hedismissedtheemissarieswithprincelypresents；

andinahumbleletterbesoughtthecontinuanceoftheEmperor’sfavour，andofthedignitieshehadbestoweduponhim。

Themurmursofthearmywereuniversal，onhearingofthedismissaloftheirgeneral；andthegreaterpartofhisofficersimmediatelyquittedtheimperialservice。ManyfollowedhimtohisestatesinBohemiaandMoravia；othersheattachedtohisinterestsbypensions，inordertocommandtheirserviceswhentheopportunityshouldoffer。

ButreposewasthelastthingthatWallensteincontemplatedwhenhereturnedtoprivatelife。Inhisretreat，hesurroundedhimselfwitharegalpomp，whichseemedtomockthesentenceofdegradation。SixgatesledtothepalaceheinhabitedinPrague，andahundredhouseswerepulleddowntomakewayforhiscourtyard。Similarpalaceswerebuiltonhisothernumerousestates。