第1章

“Iddico，eumquisitorator，virumbonumesseoportere。Inomnibusquaedicittantaauctoritasinest，utdissentirepudeat;necadvocatistudium，sedtestisautjudicisafferatfidem。”——Quintilianus。

“Democracyisthemostmonstrousofallgovernments，becauseitisimpossibleatoncetoactandcontrol;and，consequently，theSovereignPoweristhenleftwithoutanyrestraintwhatever。Thatformofgovernmentisthebestwhichplacestheefficientdirectioninthehandsofthearistocracy，subjectingtheminitsexercisetothecontrolofthepeopleatlarge。”——SirJamesMackintosh……

TheintellectualhomageofmorethanhalfacenturyhasassignedtoEdmundBurkealoftypre-eminenceinthearistocracyofmind，andwemayjustlyassumesucceedingageswillconfirmthejudgmentwhichthePasthasthuspronounced。Hisbiographicalhistoryissopopularlyknown，thatitisalmostsuperfluoustorecorditinthisbriefintroduction。

Itmay，however，besummedupinafewsentences。HewasbornatDublinin1730。Hisfatherwasanattorneyinextensivepractice，andhismother’smaidennamewasNogle，whosefamilywasrespectable，andresidednearCastletown，Roche，whereBurkehimselfreceivedfiveyearsofboyisheducationundertheguidanceofarusticschoolmaster。HewasenteredatTrinityCollege，Dublin，in1746，butonlyremainedthereuntil1749。In1753hebecameamemberoftheMiddleTemple，andmaintainedhimselfchieflybyliterarytoil。Bristoldiditselfthehonourtoelecthimforherrepresentativein1774，andafteryearsofsplendidusefulnessandmentaltriumph，asanorator，statesman，andpatriot，heretiredtohisfavouriteretreat，Beaconsfield，inBuckinghamshire，wherehediedonJuly9th，1797。Hewasburiedhere;

andthepilgrimwhovisitsthegraveofthisillustriousman，whenhegazesonthesimpletombwhichmarkstheearthlyresting？placeofhimself，brother，son，andwidow，mayfeelinglyrecallhisownpatheticwishutteredsomefortyyearsbefore，inLondon：——“Iwouldrathersleepinthesoutherncornerofalittlecountrychurchyard，thaninthetomboftheCapulets。Ishouldlike，however，thatmydustshouldminglewithkindreddust。Thegoodoldexpression，’familyburying？ground，’hassomethingpleasinginit，atleasttome。”Alludingtohisapproachingdissolution，hethusspeaks，inaletteraddressedtoarelativeofhisearliestschoolmaster：——“IhavebeenatBaththesefourmonthsfornopurpose，andamthereforetoberemovedtomyownhouseatBeaconsfieldto-morrow，tobenearerahabitationmorepermanent，humblyandfearfullyhopingthatmybetterpartmayfindabettermansion。”Itisasourceofdeepthankfulnessforthosewhoreverencethegeniusandeloquenceofthisgreatman，tostate，thatBurke’sreligionwasthatoftheCross，andtofindhimspeakingofthe“Intercession“ofourRedeemingLord，as“whathehadlongsoughtwithunfeignedanxiety，andtowhichhelookedwithtremblinghope。”ThecommencingparagraphinhisWillalsoauthenticatesthegenuinecharacterofhispersonalChristianity。“Accordingtotheancient，good，andlaudablecustom，ofwhichmyheartandunderstandingrecognisethepropriety，IBEQUEATHMY

SOULTOGOD，HOPINGFORHISMERCYONLYTHROUGHTHEMERITSOFOURLORD

ANDSAVIOURJESUSCHRIST。MybodyIdesiretobeburiedinthechurchofBeaconsfield，neartothebodiesofmydearestbrother，andmydearestson，inallhumilitypraying，thataswehavelivedinperfectunitytogether，wemaytogetherhavepartintheresurrectionofthejust。”

(Inthe“EpistolaryCorrespondenceoftheRightHon。EdmundBurkeandDr。FrenchLaurence“(Rivingtons，London，1827)，areseveraltouchingallusionstothatmaster？griefwhichthrewamournfulshadowovertheclosingperiodofBurke’slife。Inonelettertheanxiousfathersays，“Thefevercontinuesmuchasitwas。Hesleepsinaveryuneasywayfromtimetotime？-buthisstrengthdecaysvisibly，andhisvoiceis，inamanner，gone。ButGodisall？sufficient？-andsurelyHisgoodnessandhismother’sprayersmaydomuch“(page30)。Again，inanothercommunicationaddressedtohisreveredcorrespondent，wefindabeautifulallusiontohisdepartedson，whichinvolveshisbeliefinthatmostsoothingdoctrineoftheChurch，——arecognitionofsoulsinthekingdomoftheBeatified。“HereIaminthelastretreatofhuntedinfirmity;Iamindeed’auxabois。’But，asthroughthewholeofavariousandlonglifeIhavebeenmoreindebtedthanthankfultoProvidence，soIamnowsingularlyso，inbeingdismissed，ashithertoIappeartobe，sogentlyfromlife，ANDSENTTOFOLLOWTHOSEWHOINCOURSEOUGHTTOHAVEFOLLOWED

ME，WHOM，ITRUST，ISHALLYET，INSOMEINCONCEIVABLEMANNER，SEEAND

KNOW;ANDBYWHOMISHALLBESEENANDKNOWN“(pages53，54)。

Inreferencetotheintellectualgrandeur，theeloquentgenius，andpropheticwisdomofBurke，whichhavecausedhiswritingstobecomeoraclesforfuturestatesmentoconsult，itisquiteunnecessaryforcontemporarycriticismtospeak。Bytheconcurringjudgment，bothofpoliticalfriendsandfoes，aswellasbythehighestarbitersoftastethroughoutthecivilizedworld，Burkehasbeenpronounced，notonly“primusinterpares，“but“facileomniumprinceps。”Attheterminationoftheseintroductoryremarks，thereaderwillbepresentedwithcriticalportraituresofBurkefromthewritingsandspeechesofmen，who，whileopposedtohimintheirprinciplesoflegislativepolicy，withallthechivalryandcandourofgeniuspaidanoblehomagetothevastnessandvarietyofhisunrivalledpowers。Meanwhile，itmaynotbepresumptuousforawriter，onanoccasionlikethepresent，tocontemplatethisgreatmanundercertainaspects，which，perhaps，arenotsufficientlyregardedintheirDISTINCTIVEbearingsontheworthandwisdomofhischaracterandwritings。Wesay“distinctive，“becausetheeloquenceofBurke，beyondthatofallotheroratorsandstatesmenwhichGreatBritainhasproduced，isfeaturedwithexpressions，andcharacterisedbyqualities，aspeculiarastheyareimmortal。Sofarasinvention，imagination，moralfervour，andmetaphoricalrichnessofillustration，combinedwiththatintense“pathosandethos，“whichtheRomancriticdescribes(“Hucigiturincumbatorator：hocopusejus，hiclaborest;sinequocaeteranuda，jejuna，infirma，ingratasunt：adeovelutspiritusoperishujusatqueanimusestINAFFECTIBUS。Horumautem，sicutantiquitustraditumaccepimus，duaesuntspecies：alteramGraecipathosvocant，quemnosvertentesrecteacproprieAFFECTUMdicimus;

alteramethos，cujusnomine(utegoquidemsentio)caretsermoRomanus，moresappellantur。”——Quintilian，“Instit。Orat。”lib。vi。cap。2。)asessentialtothetrueorator，areconcerned，theauthorof“ReflectionsontheFrenchRevolution，“and“LettersonaRegicidePeace，“isjustlyadmiredandappreciated。Moreover，ifwhatweunderstandbythe“sublime“ineloquencehaseverbeenembodied，thespeechesandwritingsofBurkeappeartohavebeendrawnfromthosefivesources(“pegai“)towhichLonginusalludes。Inthe8thchapterofhisfragment“OntheSublime，“heobserves，thatifweassumeanabilityforspeakingwell，asacommonbasis，therearefivecopiousfountainsfromwhencesublimityineloquencemaybesaidtoflow;viz。

1。Boldnessandgrandeurofthought。

2。Thepathetic，orthepowerofexcitingthepassionsintoanenthusiasticreachandnobledegree。

3。Askilfulapplicationoffigures，bothfromsentimentandlanguage。

4。Agraceful，finished，andornatestyle，embellishedbytropesandmetaphors。

5。Lastly，asthatwhichcompletesalltherest，——thestructureofperiods，indignityandgrandeur。

Thesefivesourcesofthesublime，thesamephilosophicalcriticdistinguishesintotwoclasses;thefirsttwoheassertstobegiftsofnature，andtheremainingthreeareconsideredtodepend，inagreatmeasure，uponliteratureandart。Again，ifwemaylingerforamomentintheattractiveregionofclassicalauthorship，howjustlyapplicablearethewordsofCiceroinhis“DeOratore，“tothevastnessandvarietyofBurke’sattainments！“Acmeaquidemsententia，nemopoteritesseomnilaudecumulatusorator，nisieritOMNIUMRERUMMAGNARUMATQUEARTIUM

SCIENTIAMCONSECUTUS。”——Cic。“DeOrat。”lib。i。cap。6。EquallydescriptiveofBurke’spowerinraisingthedormantsensibilitiesofourmoralnaturebyhisintuitiveperceptionofwhatthatnaturereallyandfundamentallyis，arethefollowingexpressionsofthesamegreatauthority：——“Quisenimnescit，maximamvimexistereoratoris，inhominummentibusveladiramautadodium，autdoloremincitandis，vel，abhisce，iisdempermonitionibus，adlenitatemmisericordiamquerevocandis？

Quare，NISIQUINATURASHOMINUM，VIMQUEOMNEMHUMANITATIS，CAUSASQUEEAS

QUIBUSMENTESAUTEXCITANTUR，AUTREFLECTUNTUR，PENITUSPERSPEXERIT，DICENDO，QUODVOLET，PERFICERENONPOTERIT。”——Cic。“DeOrat。”lib。i。

cap。12。

Buttoreturn。IfacriticalanalysisofBurke，asanexhibitionofgenius，beattempted，hischaracteristicendowmentsmay，probably，benotincorrectlyrepresentedbythefollowingsuccinctstatement。

1。Endlessvarietyinconnectionwithexhaustlessvigourofmind。

2。Aloftypowerofgeneralisation，bothinspeculativeviewsandinhisargumentativeprocess。

3。Vividintensityofconception，whichcausedabstractionstostandoutwithalmostlivingforceandvisiblefeature，inhisimpassionedmoments。

4。Animaginationoforientalluxuriance，whoseincessantplayintropes，metaphors，andanalogies，frequentlycauseshisspeechestogleamontheintellectualeye，asAeschylussaystheoceandoes，whentheSunirradiatesitsbosomwiththe“anerithmongelasma“ofcountlessbeams。5。Hispositiveacquirementsinallthevariedrealmsofart，science，andliterature，endowedhimwithsuchvastfundsofknowledge(Inthewealthofhismultitudinousacquirements，BurkeseemstorealiseCicero’sidealofwhataperfectoratorshouldknow：——“Equidemomnia，quaepertinentadusumcivium，moremhominum，quaeversanturinconsuetudinevitae，inrationereipublicae，inhacsocietatecivili，insensuhominumcommuni，innatura，inmoribus，cohendendaesseoratoriputo。”——Cicero“DeOrat。”lib。ii。cap。16。)，thatJohnsondeclaredofBurke——“Enteruponwhatsubjectyouwill，andBurkeisreadytomeetyou。”

6。Inadditiontothesehighgifts，maybeadded，anabilitytowieldtheweaponsofsarcasmandirony，withakeennessofapplicationandeffectrarelyequalled。But，inallcandour，itmaybeadded，thatjustasaprofusionoffiguresandmetaphorssometimestemptedthisgreatoratorintoincongruousimagesandcoarseanalogies，sohispassionforironywasoccasionallytoointense。Hence，thereareoccasionswherehispungencyisembitteredintoacrimony，strengthdegeneratesintovulgarism，andthevehemenceofsatireisinfuriatedwiththefiercenessofinvective。

7。Withregardtolanguageandstyle，itmaybetrulysaid，theyweretheabsolutevassalsofhisGenius，anddidhomagetoitscommandineverypossiblemodebywhichitchosetoemploythem。Thus，inhis“LettersonaRegicidePeace，“andaboveall，in“FrenchRevolutions，“

thereaderwillfindalmosteveryconceivablemannerofstyleandmodeofexpressiontheEnglishlanguagecandevelop;andwhatismore，——togetherwithclassicalrichness，therearealsothepointedseriousnessandpersuasivesimplicityofourownvernacularSaxon，whichincreasetheattractionsofBurke’sstyletoawonderfulextent。But，beyondcontroversy，amongthesegreatendowments，theimaginativefacultyisthatwhichappearstobethemosttranscendentinthementalconstitutionofBurke。Andsotrulyisthisthecase，thatbothamonghiscontemporaries，aswellasamonghissuccessors，thispredominanceofimaginationhascausedhisjustclaimsasaphilosophicthinkerandstatesmantobepartiallyoverlooked。Theunionofidealtheoryandpracticalrealisation，ofimaginativecreationwithlogicalinduction，isindeedsorare，wecannotbesurprisedattheinjusticewhichthegeniusofBurkehashadtoendureinthisrespect。Andyet，inthenatureofourfacultiesthemselves，thereexistsnonecessitywhyavividpowertoconceiveideas，shouldNOTbecombinedwithadialecticskillinexpressingthem。Degerando，anadmirableFrenchwriter，inoneofhisTreatises，hassomeprofoundobservationsonthissubject;anddoesnothesitatetodefinepoetryitselfasaspeciesof“logiquecachee。”

Butwhenweassertthattheseexcellencies，whichhavethusbeensuccinctlyexhibited，characterisethementalconstitutionofBurke，wedonotmeanthatothershavenot，intheirdegree，possessedsimilarendowments。Suchaninferencewouldbeanabsurdextravagance。Butwhatwemeantoaffirmis——thequalificationsenumeratedhaveneverbeencombinedintoco-operativeharmony，anddevelopedinproportionableeffect，astheyappearinthespeechesandwritingsofthiswonderfulman。Butafterall，wehavenotreachedwhatmaybeconsideredapeerlessexcellence，thepeculiargift，——theonegreatandgloriousdistinction，whichseparatesBurke’soratoryfromthatofallothers，andwhichhascausedhisspeechestobeblendedwithpoliticalHistory，andtoincorporatethemselveswiththemoraldestinyofEurope，——namely，HISINTUITIVEPERCEPTIONOFUNIVERSALPRINCIPLES。Thetruthofthisstatementmaybeverified，bycomparingtheeloquenceofBurkewithspecimensofdepartedorators;orbyareferencetoexistingstandardsintheparliamentarydebates。Compared，then，eitherwiththespeechesofChatham，Holland，Pitt，Fox，etc。etc。weperceiveatoncethegranddistinctiontowhichwerefer。Theseillustriousmenwereeffectivedebaters，and，invarioussenses，oratorsofsurpassingexcellency。Buthowisit，thatwithalltheirallowedgrandeurofintellectandpoliticaleminence，theyhaveceasedtooperateupontheheartsandmindsofthepresentAge，eitherasteachersofpoliticalTruth，ororaclesoflegislativeWisdom？Simply，BECAUSEtheyweretoopopularintemporaryeffect，evertobecomeinfluentialbypermanentinspiration。

Intheirhighestmoods，andamidtheirnoblesthoursoftriumph，theywere“oftheearthearthy。”Party;personality;crushingrejoinders，orsatiricalattacks;afelicitousexposureofinconsistency，oratriumphantself-vindication;brilliantrepartees，andlogicalgladiatorship，——suchareamongtheprominentcharacteristicswhichcausedparliamentarydebatesinBurke’sdaytobesoanimatingandinterestingtothosewhoheard，orperusedthem，amidtheexcitementsofthehour。Itisnottobedeniedthatcommandingeloquence，vastgenius，politicalardour，intellectualenthusiasm，togetherwithindignantdenunciationandargumentativesubtlety，werethussummonedintoexercisebytheperilsoftheNation，andthecontentionsofParty。

Nevertheless，thelocal，thetemporal，theconventional，andtheindividual，inallwhichrelatestothescienceofpoliticsorthetacticsofpartisanship，——aresufficienttoexciteandemploytheenergiesandqualitieswhichmadethegeneralparliamentarydebatesofBurke’speriodsocaptivating。Butwhenwereverttohisownspeechesandwritings，weatonceperceiveWHY，aslongasthemindcancomprehendwhatistrue，theheartappreciatewhatispure，ortheconscienceauthenticatethesanctionofheavenandthedistinctionsbetweenrightandwrong，——EdmundBurkewillcontinuetobeadmired，revered，andconsulted，notonlyasthegreatestofEnglishorators，butastheprofoundestteacherofpoliticalScience。Itwasnotthathedespisedthearrangementoffacts，oroverlookedtheminutiaeofdetail;

onthecontrary，asmaybeprovedbyhisspeecheson“economicalreform，“andWarrenHastings;intheserespectshisresearchwasboundless，andhisindustryinexhaustible。Moreover，hewasquitealivetotheclaimsofacrisis，andwiththecoolnessandcalmofapracticalstatesman，knewhowtoconfrontasuddenemergency，andtocontendwithagiganticdifficulty。YetallthesequalificationsrecedebeforeBurke’samazingpowerofexpandingparticularsintouniversals，andofassociatingtheaccidentsofatransientdiscussionwiththeessentialpropertiesofsomepermanentLawinpolicy，orabstractTruthinmorals。

Hisgeniuslookedthroughthelocaltotheuniversal;inthetemporalperceivedtheeternal;andwhilefacingthefeaturesoftheIndividual，wasenabledtocontemplatetheattributesofaRace。(Cicero，inmanyrespectsacounterpartofBurke，bothinstatesmanshipandoratory，appearstorecognisewhatishereexpressedwhenhesays：——“Pleriqueduogeneraaddicendumdederunt;UNUMDECERTADEFINITAQUECAUSA，qualessuntquaeinlitibus，quaeindeliberationibusversantur;——alterum，quodappellantomnesferescriptores，explicatnemo，INFINITAMGENERISSINE

TEMPORE，ETSINEPERSONAquaestionem。”——“DeOrat。”lib。ii。cap。15。)

Hencehisspeechesarevirtualprophecies;andhiswritingsastorehouseofpregnantaxiomsandpredictiveenunciations，aslimitlessintheirrangeastheyareundyinginduration。Inoneword，nospeechesdeliveredintheEnglishParliament，aresolikelytobeeternalizedasBurke’s，becausehehascombinedwithhistreatmentofsomeespecialcaseorcontingencybeforehim，theassertionofimmutablePrinciples，whichcanbedetachedfromwhatislocalandnational，andthusmadetostandforthaloneinallthenakedgrandeuroftheirtruthandtheirtendency。Letusbepermittedtoinvestigatethistopicalittlefurther。If，then，whatQuintilianassertedoftheRomanoratormaybeappliedtoourownBritishCicero，——“Illeseprofecissesciat，cuiCicerovaldeplacebit;“andif，moreover，thispre-eminencebechieflydiscoveredinBurke’sinstinctivegraspofthatmoralessencewhichisincorporatedwithallquestionsofpoliticalScience，andsocialEthics——fromWHENCEcamethisdivinerenergyofhisGenius？NobelieverinChristianrevelationwillhesitatetoappropriate，eventothissubject，theapostolicaxiom，“EVERYgoodgift，andEVERYperfectgiftisfromabove。”Butwhilewesubscribewithreverentialsinceritytothisannouncement，itisequallytrue，thattheInfiniteInspirerofallgoodadjustsHissecretenergiesbycertainlaws，andcondescendstoworkbyanalogousmeans。Bearingthisinmind，weventuretothinkBurke’sgiftofalmostprescientinsightintotherecessesofourcommonnature，andhisconsummatefacultyofinstructingtheFuturethroughthemediumofthePresent，——werepartlyderivedfromtheelevationofhissentiments，andthepurityofhisprivatelife。(TheactionandreactionmaintainedbetweenourmoralandintellectualelementsisbutremotelydiscussedbyQuintilianinhis“Institutes。”Butstill，inmorethanonepassage，hemostimpressivelydeclares，thatmentalproficiencyisgreatlyretardedbyperversityofheartandwill。Forinstance，ononeoccasionwefindhimspeakingthus：——“Nihilenimesttamoccupatum，tammultiforme，totactamvariisaffectibusconcisum，atquelaceratum，quammalaacimprobamens。Quisinterhaec，literis，autullibonaearti，locus？Nonherclemagisquamfrugibus，interrasentibusacrubisoccupata。”——“Nothingissoflurriedandagitated，soself？contradictory，orsoviolentlyrentandshatteredbyconflictingpassions，asabadheart。Inthedistractionswhichitproduces，whatroomisthereforthecultivationofletters，orthepursuitsofanyhonourableart？

Assuredly，nomorethanthereisforthegrowthofcorninafieldoverrunwiththornsandbrambles。”)Itwouldbeunwisetodrawinvidiouscomparisons，butnostudentoftheperiodinwhichBurkewasinParliament，candenythat，comparedwithSOMEofhisillustriouscontemporaries，hewasindeedamodelofwhatreasonandconsciencealikeapproveinalltherelativedutiesandpersonalconductofaman，whenbeheldinhisdomesticcareer。Itis，indeed，asourceofdeepthankfulness，theadmirerofBurke’sgeniusinpublic，hasnoreasontoblushforhischaracterinprivate;andthatwhenwehavelistenedtohismatchlessoratoryuponthearenaoftheHouseofCommons，wehavenottomournoverdissipation，impurity，anddepravityamidthecirclesofprivatehistory。Ourtheory，then，is，thatbeyondwhathisdistinctivegeniusinspired，Burke’swondrouspowerofenunciatingeverlastingprinciplesandofassociatingtheloftiestabstractionsofwisdomwiththecommonestthemesofthehour，——wassustainedandstrengthenedbythepurityofhisheart，andthesubjectionofpassiontothelawofconscience。Andiftheworshippersofmereintellect，apartfrom，orasopposedto，moralelevation，areinclinedtoridiculethisviewofBurke’sgenius，webegtoremindthem，that“OnegreaterthantheTemple“ofmortalWisdom，andalltheidolsenshrinedtherein，hasassertedapositiveconnectiontoexistbetweenmentalinsightandmoralpurity。WealludetotheRedeemer’swords，whenHedeclares，——“IfanymanWILLStodoHiswill，heshallKNOWofthedoctrine。”HOWthepassionsactuponourperceptions，andbywhatprocessthemotionsoftheWillelevateordepresstheforcesoftheIntellect，isbeyondourmetaphysicstoanalyse。Butthatthereexistsareal，active，andinfluentialconnectionbetweenourmoralandmentallife，isundeniable：

andsinceBurke’spowerofseizingtheessentialIdea，orfundamentalPrincipleofeverycomplexdetailwhichcamebeforehim，waspre-eminentlyhisgift，——theintellectualinsightsuchgiftdeveloped，wasnotonlyanexpressionofsenatorialwisdom，butalsoawitnessfortheelevationofhismoralcharacter。WemustnowalludetothepublicconductofBurke，asaStatesmanandPolitician，andonlyregretthelimitedrangeofapopularessayconfinesustooneview，namely，hisallegedinconsistency。ThereWASaperiodwhenchargesofapostasywerebroughtagainsthimwithrecklessaudacity：butTime，theinstructorofignorance，andthesubduerofprejudice，isnowbeginningtoplacetheconductofBurkeinitstruelight。Thefactsofthecasearebrieflythese。Uptotheperiodof1791，FoxandBurkefoughtinthesamerankofopposition，andstoodtogetheruponabasisofcompleteidentityinprincipleandsentiment。Butevenbeforethecelebrateddisruptionof1791，theprogressofRepublicanisminAmerica，andtheapproachingseparationofthecoloniesfromtheirparentstate，Burke’sviewsofpoliticallibertyhadreceivedextensivemodifications;andtheardourofhisconfidenceintheso？calledfriendsoffreedomhadbeengreatlycooled。Butin1791，thedisruptionbetweenBurkeandFoxbecameopen，absolute，andfinal，whenthelatterstatesmanuttered，inthehearingofhisfriend，thisfearfuleulogiumontheFrenchRevolution：——“ThenewconstitutionofFranceisthemoststupendousandgloriousedificeoflibertywhichhadbeenerectedonthefoundationofhumanintegrityinanyageorcountry！”(ThatancientSageuntowhosepoliticalwisdomfrequentreferencehasbeenmadeinthisessay，thusspeaksonthereverencedueuntoanexistinggovernment，evenwhencontemplatedfromitsweakestside：——“Formidableastheseargumentsseem，theymaybeopposedbyothersofnotlessweight;argumentswhichprovethateventherustofgovernmentistoberespected，andthatitsfabricisnevertobetouchedbutwithafearfulandtremblinghand。Whentheevilofperseveringinhereditaryinstitutionsissmall，itoughtalwaystobeendured，becausetheevilofdepartingfromthemiscertainlyverygreat。Slightimperfections，therefore，whetherinthelawsthemselves，orinthosewhoadministerandexecutethelaws，oughtalwaystobeoverlooked，becausetheycannotbecorrectedwithoutoccasioningamuchgreatermischief，andtendingtoweakenthatreverencewhichthesafetyofallgovernmentsrequiresthatthecitizensatlargeshouldentertain，cultivate，andcherishforthehereditaryinstitutionsoftheircountry。

Thecomparisondrawnfromtheimprovementofartsdoesnotapplytotheamendmentoflaws。Tochangeorimproveanart，andtoalteroramendalaw，arethingsasdissimilarintheiroperationasdifferentintheirtendency;forlawsoperateaspracticalprinciplesofmoralaction;and，likealltherulesofmorality，derivetheirforceandefficacy，aseventhenameimports，fromthecustomaryrepetitionofhabitualacts，andtheslowoperationoftime。Everyalterationofthelaws，therefore，tendstosubvertthatauthorityonwhichthepersuasiveagencyofalllawsisfounded，andtoabridge，weaken，anddestroythepowerofthelawitself。”——Aristotle’s“Politics。”)ThereplyofBurketothisburstofJacobinism，withallitsconsequencesinthepoliticalhistoryofEurope，isfartoowellknowntobequotedhere。But，sinceitwasatthispointinthecareerofBurkethechargeofapostasywascommenced，andwhichhasneverquitediedaway，eveninexistingtimes，wemaybepermitted，first，tociteanoblepassagefromBurke’sself？vindication;

andsecondly，toadduceastillmoreimpressiveevidenceofhispoliticalrectitudeandwisdom，derivedfromtheadmissionofthosewhowereoncehisuncompromisingopponents。InrelationtotheattacksofFoxuponhissupposedinconsistency，Mr。Burkethusreplies：——

“Ipasstothenextheadofcharge，——Mr。Burke’sinconsistency。Itiscertainlyagreataggravationofhisfaultinembracingfalseopinions，thatindoingsoheisnotsupposedtofillupavoid，butthatheisguiltyofaderelictionofopinionsthataretrueandlaudable。Thisisthegreatgistofthechargeagainsthim。Itisnotsomuchthatheiswronginhisbook(thathoweverisallegedalso)，asthathehasthereinbeliedhiswholelife。Ibelieve，ifhecouldventuretovaluehimselfuponanything，itisonthevirtueofconsistencythathewouldvaluehimselfthemost。Striphimofthis，andyouleavehimnakedindeed。

“Inthecaseofanymanwhohadwrittensomething，andspokenagreatdeal，uponverymultifariousmatter，duringupwardsoftwenty？fiveyears’publicservice，andinasgreatavarietyofimportanteventsasperhapshaveeverhappenedinthesamenumberofyears，itwouldappearalittlehard，inordertochargesuchamanwithinconsistency，toseecollectedbyhisfriend，asortofdigestofhissayings，eventosuchasweremerelysportiveandjocular。Thisdigest，however，hasbeenmade，withequalpainsandpartiality，andwithoutbringingoutthosepassagesofhiswritingswhichmighttendtoshowwithwhatrestrictionsanyexpressions，quotedfromhim，oughttohavebeenunderstood。Fromagreatstatesmanhedidnotquiteexpectthismodeofinquisition。Ifitonlyappearedintheworksofcommonpamphleteers，Mr。Burkemightsafelytrusttohisreputation。Whenthusurged，heought，perhaps，todoalittlemore。Itshallbeaslittleaspossible，forIhopenotmuchiswanting。TobetotallysilentonhischargeswouldnotberespectfultoMr。Fox。Accusationssometimesderiveaweightfromthepersonswhomakethem，towhichtheyarenotentitledfortheirmatter。“Amanwho，amongvariousobjectsofhisequalregard，issecureofsome，andfullofanxietyforthefateofothers，isapttogotomuchgreaterlengthsinhispreferenceoftheobjectsofhisimmediatesolicitudethanMr。

Burkehaseverdone。Amansocircumstancedoftenseemstoundervalue，tovilify，almosttoreprobateanddisown，thosethatareoutofdanger。

Thisisthevoiceofnatureandtruth，andnotofinconsistencyandfalsepretence。Thedangerofanythingverydeartousremoves，forthemoment，everyotheraffectionfromthemind。WhenPriamhadhiswholethoughtsemployedonthebodyofhisHector，herepelswithindignation，anddrivesfromhimwithathousandreproaches，hissurvivingsons，whowithanofficiouspietycrowdedabouthimtooffertheirassistance。A

goodcritic(thereisnobetterthanMr。Fox)wouldsay，thatthisisamaster？stroke，andmarksadeepunderstandingofnatureinthefatherofpoetry。HewoulddespiseaZoilus，whowouldconcludefromthispassagethatHomermeanttorepresentthismanofafflictionashating，orbeingindifferentandcoldinhisaffectionstothepoorrelicsofhishouse，orthathepreferredadeadcarcasstohislivingchildren。

“Mr。Burkedoesnotstandinneedofanallowanceofthiskind，which，ifhedid，bycandidcriticsoughttobegrantedtohim。Iftheprinciplesofamixedconstitutionbeadmitted，hewantsnomoretojustifytoconsistencyeverythinghehassaidanddoneduringthecourseofapoliticallifejusttouchingtoitsclose。Ibelievethatgentlemanhaskepthimselfmoreclearofrunningintothefashionofwild，visionarytheories，orofseekingpopularitythrougheverymeans，thananymanperhapseverdidinthesamesituation。

“Hewasthefirstmanwho，onthehustings，atapopularelection，rejectedtheauthorityofinstructionsfromconstituents;orwho，inanyplace，hasarguedsofullyagainstit。Perhapsthediscreditintowhichthatdoctrineofcompulsiveinstructionsunderourconstitutionissincefallen，maybedue，inagreatdegree，tohisopposinghimselftoitinthatmanner，andonthatoccasion。

“Thereformersinrepresentation，andtheBillsforshorteningthedurationofParliaments，heuniformlyandsteadilyopposedformanyyearstogether，incontradictiontomanyofhisbestfriends。Thesefriends，however，inhisbetterdays，whentheyhadmoretohopefromhisserviceandmoretofearfromhislossthannowtheyhave，neverchosetofindanyinconsistencybetweenhisactsandexpressionsinfavourofliberty，andhisvotesonthosequestions。Butthereisatimeforallthings。”Weneednot，however，confineourvindicationofBurketohisowneloquence，butinvitetheespecialattentionofhisaccusersanddefamersuntotwoforgottenfacts：1st。AfewweeksbeforeFoxdied，hedictatedadespatchtoLordYarmouth，whichconfirmedallthepolicyforwhichPittforfifteenyearshadcontended：moreover，inadebateonWyndham’s“MilitarySystem，“1806，Foxthusdeliveredhisownrecantation：——“Indeed，bythecircumstancesofEurope，IAMREADYTO

CONFESSIHAVEBEENWEANEDFROMTHEOPINIONSIFORMERLYHELDWITH

RESPECTTOTHEFORCEWHICHMIGHTSUFFICEINTIMEOFPEACE：nordoI

considerthisanyinconsistency，becauseIseenorationalprospectofanypeace，whichwouldexemptusfromthenecessityofwatchfulpreparationandpowerfulestablishment。”ButthechangeofFox’sopinions，andtheirsimilaritytothosemaintainedbyPitt，withreferencetoourwarwithFrance，arebynomeansALLwhichhistorycanproduceinjustificationofBurke’spoliticalwisdomandconsistency。

Thewholecivilizedworldhasreadthe“ReflectionsontheFrenchRevolution，“whosesale，inoneyear，achievedtheenormousnumberof30，000copies，inconnectionwithmedalsormarksofhonourfromalmosteveryCourtinEurope。Now，ofalltherepliesmadetothismasterpieceofreasoningandreflection，Mackintosh’s“VindiciaeGallicae“wasincontestablytheablestandprofoundest。Andyet，thegreatestofallhisintellectualopponentsthusaddressesBurke，asappearsfrom“Memoirs“ofMackintosh，volumei。page87：——“TheenthusiasmwithwhichIonceembracedtheinstructionconveyedinyourwritingsisnowripenedintosolidconvictionbytheexperienceandconvictionofmorematureage。Foratime，SEDUCEDBYTHELOVEOFWHATITHOUGHTLIBERTY，I

venturedtooppose，withoutceasingtovenerate，thatwriterwhohadnourishedmyunderstandingwiththemostwholesomeprinciplesofpoliticalwisdom……Sincethattime，AMELANCHOLYEXPERIENCEHAS

UNDECEIVEDMEONMANYSUBJECTS，INWHICHIWASTHEDUPEOFMYOWN

ENTHUSIASM。”LetuspartfromthisbranchofoursubjectbyquotingBurke’sownwords，uttered，asitwere，ontheverybrinkofeternity。

Theyattest，tothelatestmomentofhislife，withwhatasacredintensityandunflinchingsincerityheclungtohisoriginalsentimentstouchingtheFrenchRevolution。Norletthepresentwritershrinkfromadding，theyconstitutebutoneofthemanyspecimensofthatinstinctiveprescience，wherebythisprofoundestofphilosophicalstatesmenwasenabledtoheraldfromafarthefinaltriumphsofcourage，patriotism，andtruth。Thepassageoccurstowardstheconclusionofhis“LettersonaRegicidePeace，“andisasfollows：——“Neversuccumb。Itisastruggleforyourexistenceasanation。Ifyoumustdie，diewiththeswordinyourhand。ButIhavenofearwhateverfortheresult。ThereisasalientlivingprincipleofenergyinthepublicmindofEngland，whichonlyrequiresproperdirectiontoenablehertowithstandthis，oranyotherferociousfoe。Persevere，therefore，tillthistyrannybeover-past。”

Iffromtheglareofpublichistory，wefollowthisgreatmanintotheshadesofdomesticseclusion，orwatchthefeaturesofhissocialcharacterunfoldingthemselvesinthevariedcirclewhichhegracedbyhispresence，ordignifiedbyhisworth，——heisaliketheobjectofrespectfulesteemandlove。Warmthofheart，chivalryofsentiment，andthattruehigh？breedingwhichspringsfromthesoulratherthanapedigree，eminentlycharacterisethehistoryofBurkeinprivatelife。

Aboveall，asympathisingtendencyforthechildrenofGenius，andacatholiclargenessofviewinallwhichrelatesuntomentaleffort，combinedwiththeutmostcharityforhumanfailingsandinfirmities，——cannotbutendearhimtoourdeepestaffections，whilehisunrivalledendowmentscommandourhighestadmiration。Toillustratewhatisherealludedto，letthereaderrecallBurke’snoblegenerositytowardsthaterraticvictimofgeniusandgrief，——thepainterBarry;orhisinstantaneoussympathyinbehalfofCrabbethepoet，whenalmostafoodlesswandererinourvastmetropolis;andourestimateofBurke’sexcellenciesasaman，willnotbedeemedoverdrawn。

Itnowremainsfortheselectorofthefollowingpagestoofferafewremarksontheirnature，anddesign。Accustomed，fromtheearliestperiodofhismentallifetoreadandstudythewritingsofEdmundBurke，hehaslongwishedthatsuchaselectionasnowappears，shouldbepublished。TheworksofBurkeextendthroughavastrangeoflargevolumes;anditisfearedthousandshavebeendeterredfromholdingcommunionwithamaster？spiritofBritishliterature，bythemagnitudeofhislabours。Hence，aconcentratedspecimenofhisintellectmaynotonlytemptthe“readingpublic“(Coleridge’shorror，yetanauthor’sfriend！)tostudysomeofBurke’snoblestpassages，butevenultimatelytointroducethemintoafullacquaintancewithhisentireproducts。Letitbedistinctlyunderstood，theselectionnowpublished，isnotasecond-handone，graftedonsomepre-existingvolume;buttheresultofadiligent，careful，andanalyticalperusalofBurke’swritings。Inattemptingsuchawork，therewasonedifficulty，whichnonebutthosewhohaveintimatelystudiedthisgreatoratorcanappreciate，——wealludetothegivinggeneraltitles，ordescriptiveheadings，topassagesselectedforquotation。Thereisamentalfulness，amoralvariety，andsucharapidtransitionofidea，inmostofBurke’sspeeches，thatitalmostbafflesabilitytoabbreviatethespiritofhisparagraphs，soastoexhibitundersomegeneralheadthebearingofthewhole。Theselector，inthisrespect，canonlysay，hehasdonehisbest;andthosewhoaremostcompetenttoappreciatedifficulty，willbeleastinclinedtocriticisefailure。

Finally，astotheleadingdesignofthisvolume，itstitle，“FirstPrinciples，“issufficientlydescriptivetosavemuchexplanation。Burkerepresentsanunrivalledcombinationofpatriot，senator，andorator;

andassuch，themoralandintellectualnatureoftheAgewillbepurifiedandexpanded，whenbroughtintocontactwiththeattributesofhischaracter，andtheproductionsofhismind。Norcanthemeditativestatesman，whosepartyishiscountry，andwhosepoliticalcreedisbaseduponatruephilosophyofhumannature，forget，——thatwhiletheFrenchrevolution，asinvolvingFACTS，belongstoHistory，asenclosingPRINCIPLES，itappertainstoHumanity：andhence，theabidingapplicationofBurke’sprofoundviews，notonlytoFranceandEngland，buttotheworld。Ofcourse，thosewhoreverencethemajestyofeloquence，andarefascinatedbyafloridrichnessofstyle，boundlessimagination，inexhaustiblemetaphor，andalltheattendinggracesofconsummaterhetoric，willalsobecharmedbytheappropriatesupplythesepagesafford。But，withoutseekingtobehomiletical，letthewriterbepermittedtoadd，afarhigherpurposethanmereliteraryamusement，orthegratificationoftaste，isdesignedbythepresentvolume。Itistheselector’smostearnesthope，thatthe“FirstPrinciples“thesepagessoeloquentlyinculcate，maybetranscribedinalltheirpurity，loftiness，andtruth，intotheReasonandConscienceofhiscountrymen。Andamongthese，forwhoseespecialguidanceheventurestothinktheprofoundwisdomofthesepagestobeinvaluable，aretherisingstatesmenandsenatorsoftheday，whoareeitherbeingtrainedinourPublicSchools，attheUniversities，orabouttoenteruponthedifficultbutinspiringarenaoftheHouseofCommons。Inreferencetothissphereoflegislativeaction，withallreverencetoitsclaimsandcharacter，letitbesaid，——materialends(aboundlesspassionforphysicalgood，whetherindulgedinbyanation，orprofessedbyanindividual，isrebukedwithsolemnwisdominthefollowingpassagefromAristotle：——“Theexternaladvantagesofpowerandfortuneareacquiredandmaintainedbyvirtue，butvirtueisnotacquiredandmaintainedbythem;andwhetherweconsiderthevirtuousenergiesthemselves，orthefruitswhichtheyunceasinglyproduce，THESOVEREIGN

GOODOFLIFEMUSTEVIDENTLYBEFOUNDINMORALANDINTELLECTUAL

EXCELLENCE，MODERATELYSUPPLIEDWITHEXTERNALACCOMMODATIONS，RATHER

THANINTHEGREATESTACCUMULATIONOFEXTERNALADVANTAGES，UNIMPROVEDAND

UNADORNEDBYVIRTUE。Externalprosperityis，indeed，instrumentalinproducinghappiness，and，therefore，likeeveryotherinstrument，musthaveitsassignedlimits，beyondwhichitisinconvenientorhurtful。

Buttomentalexcellencenolimitcanbeassigned;thefurtheritextendsthemoreUSEFULitbecomes，iftheepithetof’USEFUL’needeverbeaddedtothatofHONOURABLE。Besidesthis，therelativeimportanceofqualitiesisbestestimatedbythatoftheirrespectivesubjects。Butthemind，bothinitselfandinreferencetoman，isfarbetterthanthebody，orthanproperty。Theexcellenciesofthemind，therefore，areinthesameproportiontobepreferredtothehighestperfectionofthebody，andthebestdispositionofexternalcircumstances。Thetwolastareofafarinferior，andmerelysubservientnature;sincenomanofsensecovetsorpursuesthem，butforthesakeofthemind，withaviewtopromoteitsgenuineimprovementandaugmentitsnativejoys。Letthisgreattruththenbeacknowledged，——ATRUTHEVINCEDBYTHEDEITYHIMSELF，WHOISHAPPY，NOTFROMANYEXTERNALCAUSE，BUTTHROUGHTHEINHERENT

ATTRIBUTESOFHISDIVINENATURE。”——“Politics，“lib。iv。)，commercialobjects，andsecularaggrandizement，arenowreceivinganidolatroushomageandpassionateregard，whichnoChristianpatriotcancontemplatewithoutanxiety。Theideal，theimaginative，andthereligiouselement，isalmostsneeredoutoftheHouseofCommonsattheexistingmoment;

andanyglowingexhibitionoforatory，orsplendidmanifestationofintellect，isderided，asbeing“unpractical“andill-adaptedtothesobrietyoftheEnglishSenate！Againstthisheartlessmaterialismandunholymammon-worship，Burke’spagesareamagnificentprotest;andareadmirablysuitedtoprotectthepoliticalyouthanddawningstatesmenofourcountry，fromtheblightandtheblastofdoctrineswhichdecryEnthusiasmasfolly，andcondemntheBeautifulasworthlessanduntrue。

Ships，colonies，andcommerce;exportsandimports;taxesandimposts;

chartersandcivicarrangements，——nonebutamadmanwilldepreciatewhatsuchthemesinvolve，ofduty，energy，andzeal，inpoliticallife。

Still，letitbefearlesslymaintained，neitherwealth，norcommerce，IN

THEMSELVES，canconstitutetherealgreatnessofanempire;itisonlybecausetheystandinrelationtothehigherdestiniesandholierresponsibilitiesofanEmpire，thatatruestatesmanwillregardthemasvitallywoundupwiththevigourandprosperityofnationaldevelopment。

Such，atleast，isthephilosophyofPolitics，breathedfromtheundyingpagesofEdmundBurke。Hewhostudiesthisgreatwriter，will，moreandmore，sympathisewithwhatHookertaught，andBishopSandersoninculcates。Inoneword，hewilllearntoveneratewithincreasingreverenceTHEBRITISHCONSTITUTION，as，“Thatpeerlessgrowthofpatrioticmind，ThegreateternalWonderofmankind！”

BurketracedtheultimateoriginofcivilgovernmenttotheDivineWill，bothasdeclaredinRevelation，andimagedforthbythemoralConstitutionofman。Inthisrespect，itiswell？knownhowfundamentallyhediffersfromthetheoriesofHobbes，Mandeville，Shaftesbury，andHutcheson。Notlessalso，isheopposedtoLocke，whotellsus，——“TheoriginalcompactwhichbeginsandACTUALLYCONSTITUTESANYPOLITICAL

SOCIETY，ISNOTHINGBUTTHECONSENTOFANYNUMBEROFFREEMENCAPABLEOF

AMAJORITY，TOUNITEANDINCORPORATEINTOSUCHASOCIETY。ANDTHISIS

THAT，ANDTHATONLY，WHICHCOULDGIVEBEGINNINGTOANYLAWFULGOVERNMENT

INTHEWORLD。”Inoneword，LockedeclaresthatcivilgovernmentisnotfromGodinthewayofprinciple，butfrommaninthewayoffact;andthus，beingamerecontingency，ormoralaccidentinthehistoryofhumandevelopment，self？governmentistheessentialprerogativeofournature。Inaccordancewiththisirrationalandunscripturalhypothesis，wefindPriceandPriestlyexpandingLocke’sviewsattheperiodofBurke;whileinthewritingsofthatapostleofpoliticalAntinomianism，Rousseau，andhisEnglishcounterpartTomPaine，——theprinciplesoftheASSUMED“CONTRATSOCIAL“displaytheirutmostvirulence。ThisisnottheplacetodiscusstheoriginofCivilGovernment;buttheclassicalreader，whohasbeentaughttoreverethepoliticalwisdomofthoseancientTeachers，whoseinsightwasalmostpropheticalinabstractscience，willthankusforanextractfromAristotle’s“Politics，“whichbearsuponthissubject。Itpresentsamoststrikingcoincidenceofsentimentbetweentwomaster？spiritsonthephilosophyofgovernment;

andwillatonceremindthereaderofBurke’smemorablepassage，beginningwith，“Societyisapartnership，“etc。etc。ThepassagetowhichwealludeinAristotle’s“Politics，“beginsthus：“Otemenounepolisphuseiproteroneekastos，“k。t。l。Thewholepassagemaybethusfreelytranslated。“Aparticipationinrightsandadvantagesformsthebondofpoliticalsociety;ANINSTITUTIONPRIOR，INTHEINTENTIONOF

NATURE，TOTHEFAMILIESANDINDIVIDUALSFROMWHOMITISCONSTITUTED。

Whatmembersaretothebody，thatcitizensaretoacommonwealth。Thehandsorfoot，whenseparatedfromthebody，retainsitsname，buttotallychangesitsnature，becauseitiscompletelydivestedofitsusesandpowers。Inthesamemanneracitizenisaconstituentpartofawholesystem，whichinvestshimwithpowersandqualifieshimforfunctionsforwhich，inhisindividualcapacity，heistotallyunfit;

andindependentlyofsuchsystem，hemightsubsistindeedasalonelysavage，butcouldneverattainthatimprovedandhappystatetowhichhisprogressivenatureinvariablytends。Perfectedbytheofficesanddutiesofsociallife，manisthebest;but，rudeandundisciplined，heistheveryworst，ofanimals。Fornothingismoredetestablethanarmedimprobity;andmanisarmedwithcraftandcourage，which，uncontrolledbyjustice，hewillmostwickedlypervert，andbecomeatoncethemostimpiousandfiercestofmonsters，themostabominableingluttony，andshamelessinpersonality。Butjusticeisthefundamentalvirtueofpoliticalsociety，sincetheorderofSocietycannotbemaintainedwithoutlaw，andlawsareconstitutedtoproclaimwhatisjust。”Letusaddtothisnoblepassage，Aristotleremarksinhis“Ethics“(lib。x。c。

8)，thatahigherdestinationthanpoliticalvirtueisthetrueendofman。Inthisrespect，heconcurswithPlato;whoteachesusinhis“Theaetetus，“themainobjectofhumanpursuitoughttobe“omoiosistotheokatatodunaton，“etc。etc。;i。e。“AsimilitudeuntoGodasfaraspossible;whichsimilitudeconsistsinanimitationofHisjustice，holiness，andwisdom。”Toconclude：thenoblestendofallPolicyonearth，istoeducateHumanNatureforthataugust“politeuma“(Phil。

iii。v。20)，thatEternalCommonwealthwhichawaitsperfectedSpiritsabove，when，throughinfinitegrace，theyarefinallyadmittedintoa“CITYwhichhathfoundations，whosebuilderandmakerisGod。”(Heb。xi。

10。)(ThedimapproximationsofPlatonicphilosophytocertaindiscoveriesinDivineRevelation，haverightlychallengedtheattentionoftheologicalenquirers。TheabovequotationfromSt。Paulsuggestsareferencetooneofthese，whichoccurstowardstheterminationofPlato’sninthbookof“TheRepublic。”Heisutteringaprotestagainstourconcluding，thatbecausedegeneracyappearstobetheinvariablelawordestinyofallhumancommonwealths，THEREFORE，noArchetypalModelexistsofanyperfectstate，orpolity：andthen，inoppositiontothispoliticalscepticism，Platoaddstheseremarkablewords：——“enouranoisosparadeigmaanakeitaitoboulomenoorankaiorontieautonkatoikizein，“etc。etc——“Thestatewehavehereestablished，whichexistsonlyinourreasoning，butitseemstome，HASNOEXISTENCEON

EARTH。BUTINHEAVEN，PROBABLY，IREPLIED，THEREISAMODELOFITFOR

ANYONEINCLINEDTOCONTEMPLATETHESAME，ANDBYSOCONTEMPLATINGIT，TO

REGULATEHIMSELFACCORDINGLY。”)

APPENDIX。

ThefollowingarethecriticalsketchesofBurke’scharacter，alludedtointhecommencementofthisEssay。Theyarefromthepensofhismostdistinguishedcontemporaries，WHOWEREOPPOSEDTOHIMintheirpoliticalviewsandpubliccareer。

(FromSIRJAMESMACKINTOSH。)

“Therecanbenohesitationinaccordingtohimastationamongthemostextraordinarymenthateverappeared;andwethinkthereisnowbutlittlediversityofopinionastothekindofplacewhichitisfittoassignhim。Hewasawriterofthefirstclass，andexcelledinalmosteverykindofcomposition。Possessedofmostextensiveknowledge，andofthemostvariousdescription;acquaintedalikewithwhatdifferentclassesofmenknew，eachinhisownprovince，andwithmuchthathardlyanyoneeverthoughtoflearning;hecouldeitherbringhismassesofinformationtobeardirectlyuponthesubjectstowhichtheyseverallybelonged，——orhecouldavailhimselfofthemgenerallytostrengthenhisfaculties，andenlargehisviews，——orhecouldturnanyofthemtoaccountforthepurposeofillustratinghistheme，orenrichinghisdiction。Hence，whenheishandlinganyonematter，weperceivethatweareconversingwithareasonerorateacher，towhomalmosteveryotherbranchofknowledgeisfamiliar：hisviewsrangeoverallthecognateobjects;hisreasoningsarederivedfromprinciplesapplicabletootherthemes，aswellastheoneinhand;argumentspourinfromallsides，aswellasthosewhichstartupunderourfeet，——thenaturalgrowthofthepathheisleadingusover;whiletothrowlightroundoursteps，andeitherexploreitsdarkestplaces，orserveforourrecreation;

illustrationsarefetchedfromathousandquarters，andanimaginationmarvellouslyquicktodescryunthoughtofresemblances，pointstoourusethestores，whichaloveyetmoremarvellouslyhasgatheredfromallagesandnations，andartsandtongues。Weare，inrespectoftheargument，remindedofBacon’smultifariousknowledge，andtheexuberanceofhislearnedfancy;whilstthemany？lettereddictionrecallstomindthefirstofEnglishpoets，andhisimmortalverse，richwiththespoilsofallsciencesandalltimes……

“Heproducedbutonephilosophicaltreatise;butnomanlaysdownabstractprinciplesmoresoundly，orbettertracestheirapplication。

Allhisworks，indeed，evenhiscontroversial，aresoinfusedwithgeneralreflection，sovariegatedwithspeculativediscussion，thattheyweartheairoftheLyceum，aswellastheAcademy。”

(FromLORDERSKINE。)

“IshalltakecaretoputBurke’sworkontheFrenchRevolutionintothehandsofthosewhoseprinciplesarelefttomyprotection。Ishalltakecarethattheyhavetheadvantageofdoing，intheregularprogressionofyouthfulstudies，whatIhavedoneevenintheshortintervalsoflaboriouslife;thattheyshalltranscribewiththeirownhandsfromalltheworksofthismostextraordinaryperson，andfromthislast，amongtherest，thesoundesttruthsofreligion，thejustestprinciplesofmorals，inculcatedandrendereddelightfulbythemostsublimeeloquence;thehighestreachofphilosophybroughtdowntothelevelofcommonmindsbythemostcaptivatingtaste;themostenlightenedobservationsonhistory，andthemostcopiouscollectionofusefulmaximsfortheexperienceofcommonlife。”

(FromKING，BishopofRochester。)，“InthemindofMr。Burkepoliticalprincipleswerenotobjectsofbarrenspeculation。Wisdominhimwasalwayspractical。Whateverhisunderstandingadoptedastruth，madeitswaytohisheart，andsankdeepintoit;andhisardentandgenerousfeelingsseizedwithpromptitudeeveryoccasionofapplyingittomankind。Whereshallwefindrecordedexertionsofactivebenevolenceatoncesonumerous，sovaried，andsoimportant，madebyoneman？Amongthose，theredressofwrongs，andtheprotectionofweaknessfromtheoppressionofpower，weremostconspicuous……

Theassumptionofarbitrarypower，inwhatevershapeitappeared，whetherundertheveiloflegitimacy，orskulkinginthedisguiseofStatenecessity，orpresentingtheshamelessfrontofusurpation——whethertheprescriptiveclaimofascendancy，orthecareerofofficialauthority，orthenewly？acquireddominionofamob，——wasthepureobjectofhisdetestationandhostility;andthisisnotafancifulenumerationofpossiblecases，“etc。

SELECTIONSFROMTHESPEECHESANDWRITINGSOFEDMUNDBURKE。

NATUREANDFUNCTIONSOFTHEHOUSEOFCOMMONS。

Whateveralterationstimeandthenecessaryaccommodationofbusinessmayhaveintroduced，thischaractercanneverbesustained，unlesstheHouseofCommonsshallbemadetobearsomestampoftheactualdispositionofthepeopleatlarge。Itwould(amongpublicmisfortunes)

beanevilmorenaturalandtolerable，thattheHouseofCommonsshouldbeinfectedwitheveryepidemicalfrenzyofthepeople，asthiswouldindicatesomeconsanguinity，somesympathyofnaturewiththeirconstituents，thanthattheyshouldinallcasesbewhollyuntouchedbytheopinionsandfeelingsofthepeopleoutofdoors。Bythiswantofsympathytheywouldceasetobeahouseofcommons。Foritisnotthederivationofthepowerofthathousefromthepeople，whichmakesitinadistinctsensetheirrepresentative。Thekingistherepresentativeofthepeople;soarethelords，soarethejudges。Theyallaretrusteesforthepeople，aswellasthecommons;becausenopowerisgivenforthesolesakeoftheholder;andalthoughgovernmentcertainlyisaninstitutionofDivineauthority，yetitsforms，andthepersonswhoadministerit，alloriginatefromthepeople。

Apopularorigincannotthereforebethecharacteristicaldistinctionofapopularrepresentative。Thisbelongsequallytoallpartsofgovernment，andinallforms。Thevirtue，spirit，andessenceofahouseofcommonsconsistsinitsbeingtheexpressimageofthefeelingsofthenation。ItwasnotinstitutedtobeacontrolUPONthepeople，asoflateithasbeentaught，byadoctrineofthemostpernicioustendency。

ItwasdesignedasacontrolFORthepeople。Otherinstitutionshavebeenformedforthepurposeofcheckingpopularexcesses;andtheyare，Iapprehend，fullyadequatetotheirobject。Ifnot，theyoughttobemadeso。TheHouseofCommons，asitwasneverintendedforthesupportofpeaceandsubordination，ismiserablyappointedforthatservice;

havingnostrongerweaponthanitsmace，andnobetterofficerthanitsserjeant-at-arms，whichitcancommandofitsownproperauthority。A

vigilantandjealouseyeoverexecutoryandjudicialmagistracy;ananxiouscareofpublicmoney;anopenness，approachingtowardsfacility，topubliccomplaint;theseseemtobethetruecharacteristicsofahouseofcommons。Butanaddressinghouseofcommons，andapetitioningnation;ahouseofcommonsfullofconfidence，whenthenationisplungedindespair;intheutmostharmonywithministers，whomthepeopleregardwiththeutmostabhorrence;whovotethanks，whenthepublicopinioncallsuponthemforimpeachments;whoareeagertogrant，whenthegeneralvoicedemandsaccount;who，inalldisputesbetweenthepeopleandadministration，presumeagainstthepeople;whopunishtheirdisorders，butrefuseeventoinquireintotheprovocationstothem;

thisisanunnatural，amonstrousstateofthingsinthisconstitution。

Suchanassemblymaybeagreat，wise，awfulsenate;butitisnot，toanypopularpurpose，ahouseofcommons。Thischangefromanimmediatestateofprocurationanddelegationtoacourseofactingasfromoriginalpower，isthewayinwhichallthepopularmagistraciesintheworldhavebeenpervertedfromtheirpurposes。Itisindeedtheirgreatestandsometimestheirincurablecorruption。Forthereisamaterialdistinctionbetweenthatcorruptionbywhichparticularpointsarecarriedagainstreason(thisisathingwhichcannotbepreventedbyhumanwisdom，andisoflessconsequence)，andthecorruptionoftheprincipleitself。Forthentheevilisnotaccidental，butsettled。Thedistemperbecomesthenaturalhabit。

RETROSPECTANDRESIGNATION。

Youarebutjustenteringintotheworld;Iamgoingoutofit。Ihaveplayedlongenoughtobeheartilytiredofthedrama。WhetherIhaveactedmypartinitwellorill，posteritywilljudgewithmorecandourthanI，orthanthepresentage，withourpresentpassions，canpossiblypretendto。Formypart，Iquititwithoutasigh，andsubmittothesovereignorderwithoutmurmuring。Thenearerweapproachtothegoaloflife，thebetterwebegintounderstandthetruevalueofourexistence，andtherealweightofouropinions。Wesetoutmuchinlovewithboth：

butweleavemuchbehindusasweadvance。Wefirstthrowawaythetalesalongwiththerattlesofournurses;thoseofthepriestkeeptheirholdalittlelonger;thoseofourgovernorsthelongestofall。Butthepassionswhichproptheseopinionsarewithdrawnoneafteranother;andthecoollightofreason，atthesettingofourlife，showsuswhatafalsesplendourplayedupontheseobjectsduringourmoresanguineseasons。

MODESTYOFMIND。

Ifanyinquirythuscarefullyconductedshouldfailatlastofdiscoveringthetruth，itmayansweranendperhapsasuseful，indiscoveringtoustheweaknessofourownunderstanding。Ifitdoesnotmakeusknowing，itmaymakeusmodest。Ifitdoesnotpreserveusfromerror，itmayatleastfromthespiritoferror;andmaymakeuscautiousofpronouncingwithpositivenessorwithhaste，whensomuchlabourmayendinsomuchuncertainty。

NEWTONANDNATURE。

WhenNewtonfirstdiscoveredthepropertyofattraction，andsettleditslaws，hefounditservedverywelltoexplainseveralofthemostremarkablephenomenainnature;butyetwithreferencetothegeneralsystemofthings，hecouldconsiderattractionbutasaneffect，whosecauseatthattimehedidnotattempttotrace。Butwhenheafterwardsbegantoaccountforitbyasubtleelasticaether，thisgreatman(ifinsogreatamanitbenotimpioustodiscoveranythinglikeablemish)

seemedtohavequittedhisusualcautiousmannerofphilosophising：

since，perhaps，allowingallthathasbeenadvancedonthissubjecttobesufficientlyproved，Ithinkitleavesuswithasmanydifficultiesasitfoundus。Thatgreatchainofcauses，whichlinkingonetoanothereventothethroneofGodhimself，canneverbeunravelledbyanyindustryofours。Whenwegobutonestepbeyondtheimmediatesensiblequalitiesofthings，wegooutofourdepth。Allwedoafterisbutafaintstruggle，thatshowsweareinanelementwhichdoesnotbelongtous。

THEORYANDPRACTICE。

Itis，Iown，notuncommontobewrongintheory，andrightinpractice;

andwearehappythatitisso。Menoftenactrightfromtheirfeelings，whoafterwardsreasonbutillonthemfromprinciple：butasitisimpossibletoavoidanattemptatsuchreasoning，andequallyimpossibletopreventitshavingsomeinfluenceonourpractice，surelyitisworthtakingsomepainstohaveitjust，andfoundedonthebasisofsureexperience。

INDUCTIONANDCOMPARISON。

Wemustnotattempttofly，whenwecanscarcelypretendtocreep。Inconsideringanycomplexmatter，weoughttoexamineeverydistinctingredientinthecomposition，onebyone;andreduceeverythingtotheutmostsimplicity;sincetheconditionofournaturebindsustoastrictlawandvarynarrowlimits。Weoughtafterwardstore-examinetheprinciplesbytheeffectofthecomposition，aswellasthecompositionbythatoftheprinciples。Weoughttocompareoursubjectwiththingsofasimilarnature，andevenwiththingsofacontrarynature;fordiscoveriesmaybe，andoftenare，madebythecontrast，whichwouldescapeusonthesingleview。Thegreaternumberofthecomparisonswemake，themoregeneralandthemorecertainourknowledgeislikelytoprove，asbuiltuponamoreextensiveandperfectinduction。

DIVINEPOWERONTHEHUMANIDEA。

WhilstweconsidertheGodheadmerelyasheisanobjectoftheunderstanding，whichformsacomplexideaofpower，wisdom，justice，goodness，allstretchedtoadegreefarexceedingtheboundsofourcomprehension，whilstweconsidertheDivinityinthisrefinedandabstractedlight，theimaginationandpassionsarelittleornothingaffected。Butbecausewearebound，bytheconditionofournature，toascendtothesepureandintellectualideas，throughthemediumofsensibleimages，tojudgeofthesedivinequalitiesbytheirevidentactsandexertions，itbecomesextremelyhardtodisentangleourideaofthecausefromtheeffectbywhichweareledtoknowit。Thus，whenwecontemplatetheDeity，hisattributesandtheiroperation，comingunitedonthemind，formasortofsensibleimage，andassucharecapableofaffectingtheimagination。Now，thoughinajustideaoftheDeity，perhapsnoneofhisattributesarepredominant，yet，toourimagination，hispowerisbyfarthemoststriking。Somereflection，somecomparing，isnecessarytosatisfyusofhiswisdom，hisjustice，andhisgoodness。

Tobestruckwithhispower，itisonlynecessarythatweshouldopenoureyes。Butwhilstwecontemplatesovastanobject，underthearm，asitwereofalmightypower，andinvesteduponeverysidewithomnipresence，weshrinkintotheminutenessofourownnature，andare，inamanner，annihilatedbeforehim。

UNIONOFLOVEANDDREADINRELIGION。

Truereligionhas，andmusthave，alargemixtureofsalutaryfear;andfalsereligionshavegenerallynothingelsebutfeartosupportthem。

BeforetheChristianreligionhad，asitwere，humanizedtheideaoftheDivinity，andbroughtitsomewhatnearertous，therewasverylittlesaidoftheloveofGod。ThefollowersofPlatohavesomethingofit，andonlysomething;theotherwritersofpaganantiquity，whetherpoetsorphilosophers，nothingatall。Andtheywhoconsiderwithwhatinfiniteattention，bywhatadisregardofeveryperishableobject，throughwhatlonghabitsofpietyandcontemplationitisthatanymanisabletoattainanentireloveanddevotiontotheDeity，willeasilyperceivethatitisnotthefirst，themostnaturalandthemoststriking，effectwhichproceedsfromthatidea。

OFFICEOFSYMPATHY。

Wheneverweareformedbynaturetoanyactivepurpose，thepassionwhichanimatesustoitisattendedwithdelight，orapleasureofsomekind，letthesubject？matterbewhatitwill;andasourCreatorhaddesignedthatweshouldbeunitedbythebondofsympathy，hehasstrengthenedthatbondbyaproportionabledelight;andtheremostwhereoursympathyismostwanted，——inthedistressesofothers。

WORDS。

Naturalobjectsaffectus，bythelawsofthatconnexionwhichProvidencehasestablishedbetweencertainmotionsandconfigurationsofbodies，andcertainconsequentfeelingsinourmind。Paintingaffectsinthesamemanner，butwiththesuperaddedpleasureofimitation。

Architectureaffectsbythelawsofnature，andthelawofreason;fromwhichlatterresulttherulesofproportion，whichmakeaworktobepraisedorcensured，inthewholeorinsomepart，whentheendforwhichitwasdesignedisorisnotproperlyanswered。Butastowords;

theyseemtometoaffectusinamannerverydifferentfromthatinwhichweareaffectedbynaturalobjects，orbypaintingorarchitecture;yetwordshaveasconsiderableashareinexcitingideasofbeautyandofthesublimeasmanyofthose，andsometimesamuchgreaterthananyofthem。

NATUREANTICIPATESMAN。

WheneverthewisdomofourCreatorintendedthatweshouldbeaffectedwithanything，hedidnotconfidetheexecutionofhisdesigntothelanguidandprecariousoperationofourreason;butheendueditwithpowersandpropertiesthatpreventtheunderstanding，andeventhewill;

which，seizinguponthesensesandimagination，captivatethesoulbeforetheunderstandingisreadyeithertojoinwiththem，ortoopposethem。Itisbyalongdeduction，andmuchstudy，thatwediscovertheadorablewisdomofGodinhisworks：whenwediscoverit，theeffectisverydifferent，notonlyinthemannerofacquiringit，butinitsownnature，fromthatwhichstrikesuswithoutanypreparationfromthesublimeorthebeautiful。

SELF-INSPECTION。

Whateverturnsthesoulinwardonitself，tendstoconcentreitsforces，andtofititforgreaterandstrongerflightsofscience。Bylookingintophysicalcausesourmindsareopenedandenlarged;andinthispursuit，whetherwetakeorwhetherweloseourgame，thechaseiscertainlyofservice。

POWEROFTHEOBSCURE。

Poetry，withallitsobscurity，hasamoregeneral，aswellasamorepowerful，dominionoverthepassions，thantheotherart。AndIthinktherearereasonsinnature，whytheobscureidea，whenproperlyconveyed，shouldbemoreaffectingthantheclear。Itisourignoranceofthingsthatcausesallouradmiration，andchieflyexcitesourpassions。Knowledgeandacquaintancemakethemoststrikingcausesaffectbutlittle。Itisthuswiththevulgar;andallmenareasthevulgarinwhattheydonotunderstand。Theideasofeternityandinfinity，areamongthemostaffectingwehave：andyetperhapsthereisnothingofwhichwereallyunderstandsolittle，asofinfinityandeternity。

FEMALEBEAUTY。

Theobjectthereforeofthismixedpassion，whichwecalllove，istheBEAUTYoftheSEX。Menarecarriedtothesexingeneral，asitisthesex，andbythecommonlawofnature;buttheyareattachedtoparticularsbypersonalBEAUTY。Icallbeautyasocialquality;forwherewomenandmen，andnotonlythey，butwhenotheranimalsgiveusasenseofjoyandpleasureinbeholdingthem(andtherearemanythatdoso)，theyinspireuswithsentimentsoftendernessandaffectiontowardstheirpersons;weliketohavethemnearus，andweenterwillinglyintoakindofrelationwiththem，unlessweshouldhavestrongreasonstothecontrary。

NOVELTYANDCURIOSITY。

Curiosityisthemostsuperficialofalltheaffections;itchangesitsobjectperpetually，ithasanappetitewhichisverysharp，butveryeasilysatisfied;andithasalwaysanappearanceofgiddiness，restlessness，andanxiety。Curiosity，fromitsnature，isaveryactiveprinciple;itquicklyrunsoverthegreatestpartofitsobjects，andsoonexhauststhevarietywhichiscommonlytobemetwithinnature;

thesamethingsmakefrequentreturns，andtheyreturnwithlessandlessofanyagreeableeffect。Inshort，theoccurrencesoflife，bythetimewecometoknowitalittle，wouldbeincapableofaffectingthemindwithanyothersensationsthanthoseofloathingandweariness，ifmanythingswerenotadaptedtoaffectthemindbymeansofotherpowersbesidesnoveltyinthem，andofotherpassionsbesidescuriosityinourselves。

PLEASURESOFANALOGY。

Themindofmanhasnaturallyafargreateralacrityandsatisfactionintracingresemblancesthaninsearchingfordifferences：becausebymakingresemblancesweproduceNEWIMAGES;weunite，wecreate，weenlargeourstock;butinmakingdistinctionsweoffernofoodatalltotheimagination;thetaskitselfismoresevereandirksome，andwhatpleasurewederivefromitissomethingofanegativeandindirectnature。

AMBITION。

Godhasplantedinmanasenseofambition，andasatisfactionarisingfromthecontemplationofhisexcellinghisfellowsinsomethingdeemedvaluableamongstthem。Itisthispassionthatdrivesmentoallthewaysweseeinuseofsignalizingthemselves，andthattendstomakewhateverexcitesinamantheideaofthisdistinctionsoverypleasant。

Ithasbeensostrongastomakeverymiserablementakecomfort，thattheyweresupremeinmisery;andcertainitis，that，wherewecannotdistinguishourselvesbysomethingexcellent，webegintotakeacomplacencyinsomesingularinfirmities，follies，ordefectsofonekindorother。Itisonthisprinciplethatflatteryissoprevalent;

forflatteryisnomorethanwhatraisesinaman’smindanideaofapreferencewhichhehasnot。

EXTENSIONSOFSYMPATHY。

Forsympathymustbeconsideredasasortofsubstitution，bywhichweareputintotheplaceofanotherman，andaffectedinmanyrespectsasheisaffected;sothatthispassionmayeitherpartakeofthenatureofthosewhichregardself？preservation，andturninguponpainmaybeasourceofthesublime;oritmayturnuponideasofpleasure;andthenwhateverhasbeensaidofthesocialaffections，whethertheyregardsocietyingeneral，oronlysomeparticularmodesofit，maybeapplicablehere。Itisbythisprinciplechieflythatpoetry，painting，andotheraffectingarts，transfusetheirpassionsfromonebreasttoanother，andareoftencapableofgraftingadelightonwretchedness，misery，anddeathitself。

PHILOSOPHYOFTASTE。

Sofar，then，astastebelongstotheimagination，itsprincipleisthesameinallmen;thereisnodifferentinthemanneroftheirbeingaffected，norinthecausesoftheaffection;butintheDEGREEthereisadifference，whicharisesfromtwocausesprincipally;eitherfromagreaterdegreeofnaturalsensibility，orfromacloserandlongerattentiontotheobject。

CLEARNESSANDSTRENGTHINSTYLE。

Wedonotsufficientlydistinguish，inourobservationsuponlanguage，betweenaclearexpressionandastrongexpression。Thesearefrequentlyconfoundedwitheachother，thoughtheyareinrealityextremelydifferent。Theformerregardstheunderstanding;thelatterbelongstothepassions。Theonedescribesathingasitis;thelatterdescribesitasitisfelt。Now，asthereisamovingtoneofvoice，animpassionedcountenance，anagitatedgesture，whichaffectindependentlyofthethingsaboutwhichtheyareexerted，sotherearewords，andcertaindispositionsofwords，whichbeingpeculiarlydevotedtopassionatesubjects，andalwaysusedbythosewhoareundertheinfluenceofanypassion，touchandmoveusmorethanthosewhichfarmoreclearlyanddistinctlyexpressthesubject？matter。Weyieldtosympathywhatwerefusetodescription。Thetruthis，allverbaldescription，merelyasnakeddescription，thoughneversoexact，conveyssopoorandinsufficientanideaofthethingdescribed，thatitcouldscarcelyhavethesmallesteffect，ifthespeakerdidnotcallintohisaidthosemodesofspeechthatmarkastrongandlivelyfeelinginhimself。Then，bythecontagionofourpassions，wecatchafirealreadykindledinanother，whichprobablymightneverhavebeenstruckoutbytheobjectdescribed。Words，bystronglyconveyingthepassions，bythosemeanswhichwehavealreadymentioned，fullycompensatefortheirweaknessinotherrespects。

UNITYOFIMAGINATION。

Sincetheimaginationisonlytherepresentationofthesenses，itcanonlybepleasedordispleasedwiththeimages，fromthesameprincipleonwhichthesenseispleasedordispleasedwiththerealities;andconsequentlytheremustbejustascloseanagreementintheimaginationsasinthesensesofmen。Alittleattentionwillconvinceusthatthismustofnecessitybethecase。

EFFECTOFWORDS。

Ifwordshavealltheirpossibleextentofpower，threeeffectsariseinthemindofthehearer。Thefirstis，theSOUND;thesecond，thePICTURE，orrepresentationofthethingsignifiedbythesound;thethirdis，theAFFECTIONofthesoulproducedbyoneorbybothoftheforegoing。COMPOUNDEDABSTRACTwords，ofwhichwehavebeenspeaking(honour，justice，liberty，andthelike)，producethefirstandthelastoftheseeffects，butnotthesecond。SIMPLEABSTRACTS，areusedtosignifysomeonesimpleideawithoutmuchadvertingtootherswhichmaychancetoattendit，asblue，green，hot，cold，andthelike;thesearecapableofeffectingallthreeofthepurposesofwords;astheAGGREGATEwords，man，castle，horse，etc。areinayethigherdegree。

ButIamofopinion，thatthemostgeneraleffect，evenofthesewords，doesnotarisefromtheirformingpicturesoftheseveralthingstheywouldrepresentintheimagination;because，onaverydiligentexaminationofmyownmind，andgettingotherstoconsidertheirs，Idonotfindthatonceintwentytimesanysuchpictureisformed，and，whenitis，thereismostcommonlyaparticulareffortoftheimaginationforthatpurpose。Buttheaggregatewordsoperate，asIsaidofthecompound？abstracts，notbypresentinganyimagetothemind，butbyhavingfromusethesameeffectonbeingmentioned，thattheiroriginalhaswhenitisseen。

INVESTIGATION。

Iamconvincedthatthemethodofteachingwhichapproachesmostnearlytothemethodofinvestigationisincomparablythebest;since，notcontentwithservingupafewbarrenandlifelesstruths，itleadstothestockonwhichtheygrew;ittendstosetthereaderhimselfinthetrackofinvention，andtodirecthimintothosepathsinwhichtheauthorhasmadehisowndiscoveries，ifheshouldbesohappyastohavemadeanythatarevaluable。

THESUBLIME。

Whateverisfittedinanysorttoexcitetheideasofpain，anddanger，thatistosay，whateverisinanysortterrible，orisconversantaboutterribleobjects，oroperatesinamanneranalogoustoterror，isasourceoftheSUBLIME;thatis，itisproductiveofthestrongestemotionwhichthemindiscapableoffeeling。

OBSCURITY。

Thosedespoticgovernmentswhicharefoundedonthepassionsofmen，andprincipallyuponthepassionoffear，keeptheirchiefasmuchasmaybefromthepubliceye。Thepolicyhasbeenthesameinmanycasesofreligion。Almostalltheheathentemplesweredark。EveninthebarbaroustemplesoftheAmericansatthisday，theykeeptheiridolinadarkpartofthehutwhichisconsecratedtohisworship。ForthispurposetootheDruidsperformedalltheirceremoniesinthebosomofthedarkestwoods，andintheshadeoftheoldestandmostspreadingoaks。Nopersonseemsbettertohaveunderstoodthesecretofheightening，orofsettingterriblethings，ifImayusetheexpression，intheirstrongestlight，bytheforceofajudiciousobscurity，thanMilton。

PRINCIPLESOFTASTE。

Whatevercertaintyistobeacquiredinmoralityandthescienceoflife;justthesamedegreeofcertaintyhaveweinwhatrelatestotheminworksofimitation。Indeed，itisforthemostpartinourskillinmanners，andintheobservancesoftimeandplace，andofdecencyingeneral，whichisonlytobelearnedinthoseschoolstowhichHoracerecommendsus，thatwhatiscalledtaste，bywayofdistinction，consists;andwhichisinrealitynootherthanamorerefinedjudgment。

Onthewholeitappearstome，thatwhatiscalledtaste，initsmostgeneralacceptation，isnotasimpleidea，butispartlymadeupofaperceptionoftheprimarypleasuresofsense，ofthesecondarypleasuresoftheimagination，andoftheconclusionsofthereasoningfaculty，concerningthevariousrelationsofthese，andconcerningthehumanpassions，manners，andactions。Allthisisrequisitetoformtaste，andtheground？workofalltheseisthesameinthehumanmind;forasthesensesarethegreatoriginalsofallourideas，andconsequentlyofallourpleasures，iftheyarenotuncertainandarbitrary，thewholeground-workoftasteiscommontoall，andthereforethereisasufficientfoundationforaconclusivereasoningonthesematters。

THEBEAUTIFUL。

Beautyisathingmuchtooaffectingnottodependuponsomepositivequalities。And，sinceitisnocreatureofourreason，sinceitstrikesuswithoutanyreferencetouse，andevenwherenouseatallcanbediscerned，sincetheorderandmethodofnatureisgenerallyverydifferentfromourmeasuresandproportions，wemustconcludethatbeautyis，forthegreaterpart，somequalityinbodiesactingmechanicallyuponthehumanmindbytheinterventionofthesenses。

THEREALANDTHEIDEAL。

Chooseadayonwhichtorepresentthemostsublimeandaffectingtragedywehave：appointthemostfavouriteactors;sparenocostuponthescenesanddecorations;unitethegreatesteffortsofpoetry，painting，andmusic;andwhenyouhavecollectedyouraudience，justatthemomentwhentheirmindsareerectwithexpectation，letitbereportedthatastatecriminalofhighrankisonthepointofbeingexecutedintheadjoiningsquare;inamomenttheemptinessofthetheatrewoulddemonstratethecomparativeweaknessoftheimitativearts，andproclaimthetriumphoftherealsympathy。Ibelievethatthisnotionofourhavingasimplepaininthereality，yetadelightintherepresentation，arisesfromhence，thatwedonotsufficientlydistinguishwhatwewouldbynomeanschoosetodo，fromwhatweshouldbeeagerenoughtoseeifitwasoncedone。Wedelightinseeingthings，whichsofarfromdoing，ourheartiestwisheswouldbetoseeredressed。

Thisnoblecapital，theprideofEnglandandofEurope，Ibelievenomanissostrangelywickedastodesiretoseedestroyedbyaconflagrationoranearthquake，thoughheshouldberemovedhimselftothegreatestdistancefromthedanger。Butsupposesuchafatalaccidenttohavehappened，whatnumbersfromallpartswouldcrowdtobeholdtheruins，andamongstthemmanywhowouldhavebeencontentnevertohaveseenLondoninitsglory！

JUDGMENTINART。

Arectitudeofjudgmentinthearts，whichmaybecalledagoodtaste，doesinagreatmeasuredependuponsensibility;because，ifthemindhasnobenttothepleasuresoftheimagination，itwillneverapplyitselfsufficientlytoworksofthatspeciestoacquireacompetentknowledgeinthem。But，thoughadegreeofsensibilityisrequisitetoformagoodjudgment，yetagoodjudgmentdoesnotnecessarilyarisefromaquicksensibilityofpleasure。

MORALEFFECTSOFLANGUAGE。

Thisariseschieflyfromthesethreecauses。First。Thatwetakeanextraordinarypartinthepassionsofothers，andthatweareeasilyaffectedandbroughtintosympathybyanytokenswhichareshownofthem;andtherearenotokenswhichcanexpressallthecircumstancesofmostpassionssofullyaswords;sothatifapersonspeaksuponanysubject，hecannotonlyconveythesubjecttoyou，butlikewisethemannerinwhichheishimselfaffectedbyit。Certainitis，thattheinfluenceofmostthingsonourpassionsisnotsomuchfromthethingsthemselves，asfromouropinionsconcerningthem;andtheseagaindependverymuchontheopinionsofothermen，conveyableforthemostpartbywordsonly。Secondly。Therearemanythingsofaveryaffectingnature，whichcanseldomoccurinthereality，butthewordsthatrepresentthemoftendo;andthustheyhaveanopportunityofmakingadeepimpressionandtakingrootinthemind，whilsttheideaoftherealitywastransient;andtosomeperhapsneverreallyoccurredinanyshape，towhomitisnotwithstandingveryaffecting，aswar，death，famine，etc。

Besides，manyideashaveneverbeenatallpresentedtothesensesofanymenbutbywords，asGod，angels，devils，heaven，andhell，allofwhichhave，however，agreatinfluenceoverthepassions。Thirdly。BywordswehaveitinourpowertomakesuchCOMBINATIONSaswecannotpossiblydootherwise。Bythispowerofcombining，weareable，bytheadditionofwell？chosencircumstances，togiveanewlifeandforcetothesimpleobject。Inpaintingwemayrepresentanyfinefigureweplease;butwenevercangiveitthoseenliveningtoucheswhichitmayreceivefromwords。Torepresentanangelinapicture，youcanonlydrawabeautifulyoungmanwinged：butwhatpaintingcanfurnishoutanythingsograndastheadditionofoneword，“theangeloftheLORD？”