第8章

ETIQUETTE。

Etiquette，ifIunderstandrightlytheterm，whichinanyextentisofmodernusage，haditsoriginalapplicationtothoseceremonialandformalobservancespractisedatcourts，whichhadbeenestablishedbylongusage，inordertopreservethesovereignpowerfromtherudeintrusionoflicentiousfamiliarity，aswellastopreservemajestyitselffromadispositiontoconsultitseaseattheexpenseofitsdignity。Thetermcameafterwardstohaveagreaterlatitude，andtobeemployedtosignifycertainformalmethodsusedinthetransactionsbetweensovereignstates。

Inthemorelimited，aswellasinthelargersenseoftheterm，withoutknowingwhattheetiquetteis，itisimpossibletodeterminewhetheritisavainandcaptiouspunctilio，oraformnecessarytopreservedecorumincharacterandorderinbusiness。Ireadilyadmit，thatnothingtendstofacilitatetheissueofallpublictransactionsmorethanamutualdispositioninthepartiestreatingtowaiveallceremony。

Buttheuseofthistemporarysuspensionoftherecognisedmodesofrespectconsistsinitsbeingmutual，andinthespiritofconciliation，inwhichallceremonyislaidaside。Onthecontrary，whenoneofthepartiestoatreatyintrencheshimselfuptothechinintheseceremonies，andwillnotonhissideabateasinglepunctilio，andthatalltheconcessionsareupononesideonly，thepartysoconcedingdoesbythisactplacehimselfinarelationofinferiority，andtherebyfundamentallysubvertsthatequalitywhichisoftheveryessenceofalltreaty。

ANCIENTESTABLISHMENTS。

Oldestablishmentsaretriedbytheireffects。Ifthepeoplearehappy，united，wealthy，andpowerful，wepresumetherest。Weconcludethattobegood，fromwhencegoodisderived。Inoldestablishments，variouscorrectiveshavebeenfoundfortheiraberrationsfromtheory。Indeed，theyaretheresultsofvariousnecessitiesandexpediencies。Theyarenotoftenconstructedafteranytheory;theoriesareratherdrawnfromthem。Inthemweoftenseetheendbestobtained，wherethemeansseemnotperfectlyreconcilabletowhatwemayfancywastheoriginalscheme。

Themeanstaughtbyexperiencemaybebettersuitedtopoliticalendsthanthosecontrivedintheoriginalproject。Theyagainre-actupontheprimitiveconstitution;andsometimesimprovethedesignitself，fromwhichtheyseemtohavedeparted。IthinkallthismightbecuriouslyexemplifiedintheBritishconstitution。Atworst，theerrorsanddeviationsofeverykindinreckoningarefoundandcomputed，andtheshipproceedsinhercourse。Thisisthecaseofoldestablishments;butinanewandmerelytheoreticsystem，itisexpectedthateverycontrivanceshallappear，onthefaceofit，toansweritsends;

especiallywheretheprojectorsarenowayembarrassedwithanendeavourtoaccommodatethenewbuildingtoanoldone，eitherinthewallsoronthefoundations。

SENTIMENTANDPOLICY。

Neverwasthereajarordiscordbetweengenuinesentimentandsoundpolicy。Never，nonever，didNaturesayonethingandWisdomsayanother。Noraresentimentsofelevationinthemselvesturgidandunnatural。Natureisnevermoretrulyherselfthaninhergrandestform。TheApolloofBelvedere(iftheuniversalrobberhasyetlefthimatBelvedere)isasmuchinnatureasanyfigurefromthepencilofRembrandt，oranyclownintherusticrevelsofTeniers。Indeed，itiswhenagreatnationisingreatdifficultiesthatmindsmustexaltthemselvestotheoccasion，orallislost。Strongpassion，underthedirectionofafeeblereason，feedsalowfever，whichservesonlytodestroythebodythatentertainsit。Butvehementpassiondoesnotalwaysindicateaninfirmjudgment。Itoftenaccompanies，andactuates，andisevenauxiliarytoapowerfulunderstanding;andwhentheybothconspireandactharmoniously，theirforceisgreattodestroydisorderwithin，andtorepelinjuryfromabroad。Ifevertherewasatimethatcallsonusfornovulgarconceptionofthings，andforexertionsinnovulgarstrain，itistheawfulhourthatProvidencehasnowappointedtothisnation。

Everylittlemeasureisagreaterror;andeverygreaterrorwillbringonnosmallruin。Nothingcanbedirectedabovethemarkthatwemustaimat：everythingbelowitisabsolutelythrownaway。

PATRIOTISM。

Ihavelittletorecommendmyopinionsbutlongobservationandmuchimpartiality。Theycomefromonewhohasbeennotoolofpower，noflattererofgreatness;andwhoinhislastactsdoesnotwishtobeliethetenorofhislife。Theycomefromone，almostthewholeofwhosepublicexertionshasbeenastruggleforthelibertyofothers;fromoneinwhosebreastnoangerdurableorvehementhaseverbeenkindled，butbywhatheconsideredastyranny;andwhosnatchesfromhisshareintheendeavourswhichareusedbygoodmentodiscreditopulentoppression，thehourshehasemployedonyouraffairs;andwhoinsodoingpersuadeshimselfhehasnotdepartedfromhisusualoffice：theycomefromonewhodesireshonours，distinctions，andemoluments，butlittle，andwhoexpectsthemnotatall;whohasnocontemptforfame，andnofearofobloquy;whoshunscontention，thoughhewillhazardanopinion;whowouldpreserveconsistencybyvaryinghismeanstosecuretheunityofhisend;and，whentheequipoiseofthevesselinwhichhesailsmaybeendangeredbyoverloadingitupononeside，isdesirousofcarryingthesmallweightofhisreasonstothatwhichmaypreserveitsequipoise。

NECESSITY，ARELATIVETERM。

Theonlyexcusetobemadeforallourmendicantdiplomacyisthesameasinthecaseofallothermendicancy;——namely，thatithasbeenfoundedonabsolutenecessity。Thisdeservesconsideration。Necessity，asithasnolaw，soithasnoshame：butmoralnecessityisnotlikemetaphysical，orevenphysical。Inthatcategoryitisawordofloosesignification，andconveysdifferentideastodifferentminds。Tothelow-minded，theslightestnecessitybecomesaninvinciblenecessity。

“Theslothfulmansaith，Thereisalionintheway，andIshallbedevouredinthestreets。”Butwhenthenecessitypleadedisnotinthenatureofthings，butinthevicesofhimwhoallegesit，thewhiningtonesofcommonplacebeggarlyrhetoricproducenothingbutindignation;

becausetheyindicateadesireofkeepingupadishonourableexistence，withoututilitytoothers，andwithoutdignitytoitself;becausetheyaimatobtainingtheduesoflabourwithoutindustry;andbyfraudswoulddrawfromthecompassionofotherswhatmenoughttoowetotheirownspiritandtheirownexertions。

KINGJOHNANDTHEPOPE。

Hebeganwithexactinganoathfromtheking，bywhich，withoutshowingtheextentofhisdesign，heengagedhimtoeverythinghecouldask。

Johnsworetosubmittothelegateinallthingsrelatingtohisexcommunication。AndfirsthewasobligedtoacceptLangtonasarchbishop;thentorestorethemonksofCanterbury，andotherdeprivedecclesiastics，andtomakethemafullindemnificationforalltheirlosses。Andnow，bytheseconcessions，allthingsseemedtobeperfectlysettled。Thecauseofthequarrelwasentirelyremoved。Butwhenthekingexpectedforsoperfectasubmissionafullabsolution，thelegatebeganalabouredharangueonhisrebellion，histyranny，andtheinnumerablesinshehadcommitted;andinconclusiondeclared，thattherewasnowaylefttoappeaseGodandtheChurchbuttoresignhiscrowntotheHolySee，fromwhosehandsheshouldreceiveitpurifiedfromallpollutions，andholditforthefuturebyhomage，andanannualtribute。Johnwasstruckmotionlessatademandsoextravagantandunexpected。Heknewnotonwhichsidetoturn。IfhecasthiseyestowardthecoastofFrance，hetheresawhisenemyPhilip，whoconsideredhimasacriminalaswellasanenemy，andwhoaimednotonlyathiscrownbuthislife，attheheadofaninnumerablemultitudeoffiercepeople，readytorushinuponhim。Ifhelookedathisownarmy，hesawnothingtherebutcoldness，disaffection，uncertainty，distrust，andastrength，inwhichheknewnotwhetherheoughtmosttoconfideorfear。Ontheotherhand，thepapalthunders，fromthewoundsofwhichhewasstillsore，wereleveledfullathishead。Hecouldnotlooksteadilyatthesecomplicateddifficulties;andtrulyitishardtosaywhatchoicehehad，ifanychoicewerelefttokingsinwhatconcernstheindependenceoftheircrown。Surrounded，therefore，withthesedifficulties;andthatallhislatehumiliationsmightnotberenderedasineffectualastheywereignominious，hetookthelaststep;and，inthepresenceofanumerousassemblyofhispeersandprelates，whoturnedtheireyesfromthismortifyingsight，formallyresignedhiscrowntothepope’slegate;towhomatthesametimehedidhomage，andpaidthefirstfruitsofhistribute。Nothingcouldbeaddedtothehumiliationofthekinguponthisoccasion，buttheinsolenceofthelegate，whospurnedthetreasurewithhisfoot，andletthecrownremainalongtimeonthegroundbeforeherestoredittothedegradedowner。

Inthisproceedingthemotivesofthekingmaybeeasilydiscovered;buthowthebaronsofthekingdom，whoweredeeplyconcerned，suffered，withoutanyprotestation，theindependencyofthecrowntobethusforfeited，ismentionedbynohistorianofthattime。Inciviltumultsitisastonishinghowlittleregardispaidbyallpartiestothehonourorsafetyoftheircountry。Theking’sfriendswereprobablyinducedtoacquiescebythesamemotivesthathadinfluencedtheking。Hisenemies，whowerethemostnumerous，perhapssawhisabasementwithpleasure，astheyknewthisactionmightbeonedayemployedagainsthimwitheffect。

Tothebigotsitwasenough，thatitaggrandizedthepope。Itis，perhaps，worthyofobservation，thattheconductofPandulphtowardsKingJohnboreaverygreataffinitytothatoftheRomanconsulstothepeopleofCarthageinthelastPunicwar;drawingthemfromconcessiontoconcession，andcarefullyconcealingtheirdesign，untiltheymadeitimpossiblefortheCarthaginianstoresist。Suchastrongresemblancedidthesameambitionproduceinsuchdistanttimes;anditisfarfromthesoleinstance，inwhichwemaytraceasimilaritybetweenthespiritandconductoftheformerandlatterRomeintheircommondesignonthelibertiesofmankind。

CONSUMPTIONANDPRODUCE。

Thebalancebetweenconsumptionandproductionmakesprice。Themarketsettles，andalonecansettle，thatprice。MarketisthemeetingandconferenceoftheCONSUMERandPRODUCER，whentheymutuallydiscovereachother’swants。Nobody，Ibelieve，hasobservedwithanyreflectionwhatmarketis，withoutbeingastonishedatthetruth，thecorrectness，thecelerity，thegeneralequity，withwhichthebalanceofwantsissettled。They，whowishthedestructionofthatbalance，andwouldfainbyarbitraryregulationdecree，thatdefectiveproductionshouldnotbecompensatedbyincreasedprice，directlylaytheirAXEtotherootofproductionitself。

“PRIESTSOFTHERIGHTSOFMAN。”

HisGrace，likeanableorator，asheis，beginswithgivingmeagreatdealofpraisefortalentswhichIdonotpossess。Hedoesthistoentitlehimself，onthecreditofthisgratuitouskindness，toexaggeratemyabuseofthepartswhichhisbounty，andnotthatofnature，hasbestoweduponme。Inthis，too，hehascondescendedtocopyMr。Erskine。Thesepriests(Ihopetheywillexcuseme;Imeanpriestsoftherightsofman)beginbycrowningmewiththeirflowersandtheirfillets，andbedewingmewiththeirodours，asaprefacetotheknockingmeontheheadwiththeirconsecratedaxes。Ihaveinjured，saythey，theconstitution;andIhaveabandonedtheWhigpartyandtheWhigprinciplesthatIprofessed。Idonotmean，mydearsir，todefendmyselfagainsthisGrace。Ihavenotmuchinterestinwhattheworldshallthinkorsayofme;aslittlehastheworldaninterestinwhatIshallthinkorsayofanyoneinit;

andIwishthathisGracehadsufferedanunhappymantoenjoy，inhisretreat，themelancholyprivilegesofobscurityandsorrow。Atanyrate，Ihavespoken，andIhavewritten，onthesubject。IfI

havewrittenorspokensopoorlyastobequiteforgot，afreshapologywillnotmakeamorelastingimpression。“Imustletthetreelieasitfalls。”PerhapsImusttakesomeshametomyself。IconfessthatIhaveactedonmyownprinciplesofgovernment，andnotonthoseofhisGrace，whichare，Idaresay，profoundandwise;butwhichIdonotpretendtounderstand。Astothepartytowhichhealludes，andwhichhaslongtakenitsleaveofme，Ibelievetheprinciplesofthebookwhichhecondemnsareveryconformabletotheopinionsofmanyofthemostconsiderableandmostgraveinthatdescriptionofpoliticians。Afewindeed，who，Iadmit，areequallyrespectableinallpoints，differfromme，andtalkhisGrace’slanguage。Iamtoofeebletocontendwiththem。Theyhavethefieldtothemselves。Thereareothers，veryyoungandveryingeniouspersons，whoform，probably，thelargestpartofwhathisGrace，I

believe，ispleasedtoconsiderasthatparty。Someofthemwerenotbornintotheworld，andallofthemwerechildren，whenIenteredintothatconnection。Igiveduecredittothecensorialbrow，tothebroadphylacteries，andtotheimposinggravity，ofthosemagisterialrabbinsanddoctorsinthecabalaofpoliticalscience。Iadmitthat“wisdomisasthegrayhairtoman，andthatlearningislikehonourableoldage。”But，atatimewhenlibertyisagooddealtalkedof，perhapsImightbeexcused，ifIcaughtsomethingofthegeneralindocility。Itmightnotbesurprising，ifIlengthenedmychainalinkortwo，andinanageofrelaxeddiscipline，gaveatriflingindulgencetomyownnotions。Ifthatcouldbeallowed，perhapsImightsometimes(byaccident，andwithoutanunpardonablecrime)trustasmuchtomyownverycareful，andverylaborious，though，perhaps，somewhatpurblinddisquisitions，astotheirsoaring，intuitive，eagle-eyedauthority。Butthemodernlibertyisapreciousthing。Itmustnotbeprofanedbytoovulgaranuse。Itbelongsonlytothechosenfew，whoareborntothehereditaryrepresentationofthewholedemocracy，andwholeavenothingatall，no，nottheoffal，touspooroutcastsoftheplebeianrace。

“HISGRACE。”

Amongstthosegentlemenwhocametoauthority，assoon，orsoonerthantheycameofage，IdonotmeantoincludehisGrace。Withallthosenativetitlestoempireoverourmindswhichdistinguishtheothers，hehasalargeshareofexperience。HecertainlyoughttounderstandtheBritishconstitutionbetterthanIdo。Hehasstudieditinthefundamentalpart。ForoneelectionIhaveseen，hehasbeenconcernedintwenty。Nobodyislessofavisionarytheorist;nobodyhasdrawnhisspeculationsmorefrompractice。Nopeerhascondescendedtosuperintendwithmorevigilancethedecliningfranchisesofthepoorcommons。“WiththricegreatHermeshehasoutwatchedthebear。”Oftenhavehiscandlesbeenburnedtothesnuff，andglimmeredandstunkinthesockets，whilsthegrewpaleathisconstitutionalstudies;longsleeplessnightshashewasted;long，laborious，shiftlessjourneyshashemade，andgreatsumshasheexpendedinordertosecurethepurity，theindependence，andthesobrietyofelections，andtogiveacheck，ifpossible，totheruinouschargesthatgonearlytothedestructionoftherightofelectionitself。Amidstthesehislabours，hisGracewillbepleasedtoforgiveme，ifmyzeal，lessenlightenedtobesurethanhisbymidnightlampsandstudies，haspresumedtotalktoofavourablyofthisconstitution，andeventosaysomethingsoundinglikeapprobationofthatbodywhichhasthehonourtoreckonhisGraceattheheadofit。Those，whodislikethispartiality，or，ifhisGracepleases，thisflatteryofmine，haveacomfortathand。Imayberefutedandbroughttoshamebythemostconvincingofallrefutations——apracticalrefutation。EveryindividualpeerforhimselfmayshowthatIwasridiculouslywrong：thewholebodyofthosenoblepersonsmayrefutemeforthewholecorps。Iftheyplease，theyaremorepowerfuladvocatesagainstthemselves，thanathousandscribblerslikemecanbeintheirfavour。IfIwereevenpossessedofthosepowerswhichhisGrace，inordertoheightenmyoffence，ispleasedtoattributetome，therewouldbelittledifference。TheeloquenceofMr。ErskinemightsaveMr——fromthegallows，butnoeloquencecouldsaveMr。Jacksonfromtheeffectsofhisownpotion。

SPECULATIONANDHISTORY。

IshallnotlivetobeholdtheunravellingoftheintricateplotwhichsaddensandperplexestheawfuldramaofProvidencenowactingonthemoraltheatreoftheworld。Whetherforthoughtorforaction，Iamattheendofmycareer。Youareinthemiddleofyours。Inwhatpartofitsorbitthenation，withwhichwearecarriedalong，movesatthisinstant，itisnoteasytoconjecture。Itmay，perhaps，befaradvancedinitsaphelion——Butwhentoreturn？

Nottoloseourselvesintheinfinitevoidoftheconjecturalworld，ourbusinessiswithwhatislikelytobeaffected，forthebetterortheworse，bythewisdomorweaknessofourplans。Inallspeculationsuponmenandhumanaffairs，itisofnosmallmomenttodistinguishthingsofaccidentfrompermanentcauses，andfromeffectsthatcannotbealtered。

Itisnoteveryirregularityinourmovementthatisatotaldeviationfromourcourse。Iamnotquiteofthemindofthosespeculatorswhoseemassuredthat，necessarily，andbytheconstitutionofthings，allstateshavethesameperiodsofinfancy，manhood，anddecrepitudethatarefoundintheindividualswhocomposethem。Parallelsofthissortratherfurnishsimilitudestoillustrateortoadorn，thansupplyanalogiesfromwhencetoreason。Theobjectswhichareattemptedtobeforcedintoananalogyarenotfoundinthesameclassesofexistence。

Individualsarephysicalbeingssubjecttolawsuniversalandinvariable。Theimmediatecauseactingintheselawsmaybeobscure;thegeneralresultsaresubjectsofcertaincalculation。Butcommonwealthsarenotphysicalbutmoralessences。Theyareartificialcombinations，and，intheirproximateefficientcause，thearbitraryproductionsofthehumanmind。Wearenotyetacquaintedwiththelawswhichnecessarilyinfluencethestabilityofthatkindofworkmadebythatkindofagent。Thereisnotinthephysicalorder(withwhichtheydonotappeartoholdanyassignableconnection)adistinctcausebywhichanyofthosefabricsmustnecessarilygrow，flourish，ordecay;nor，inmyopinion，doesthemoralworldproduceanythingmoredeterminateonthatsubjectthanwhatmayserveasanamusement(liberal，indeed，andingenious，butstillonlyanamusement)forspeculativemen。Idoubtwhetherthehistoryofmankindisyetcompleteenough，ifeveritcanbeso，tofurnishgroundsforasuretheoryontheinternalcauseswhichnecessarilyaffectthefortuneofastate。Iamfarfromdenyingtheoperationofsuchcauses：buttheyareinfinitelyuncertainandmuchmoreobscure，andmuchmoredifficulttotrace，thantheforeigncausesthattendtoraise，todepress，andsometimestooverwhelm，acommunity。

Itisoftenimpossibleinthesepoliticalinquiriestofindanyproportionbetweentheapparentforceofanymoralcauseswemayassignandtheirknownoperation。Wearethereforeobligedtodeliverupthatoperationtomerechance，or，morepiously(perhaps，morerationally)，totheoccasionalinterpositionandirresistiblehandoftheGreatDisposer。Wehaveseenstatesofconsiderableduration，whichforageshaveremainednearlyastheyhavebegun，andcouldhardlybesaidtoebborflow。Someappeartohavespenttheirvigourattheircommencement。

Somehaveblazedoutintheirgloryalittlebeforetheirextinction。

Themeridianofsomehasbeenthemostsplendid。Others，andtheythegreatestnumber，havefluctuated，andexperiencedatdifferentperiodsoftheirexistenceagreatvarietyoffortune。Attheverymomentwhensomeofthemseemedplungedinunfathomableabyssesofdisgraceanddisaster，theyhavesuddenlyemerged。Theyhavebegunanewcourseandopenedanewreckoning;and，eveninthedepthsoftheircalamity，andontheveryruinsoftheircountry，havelaidthefoundationsofatoweringanddurablegreatness。Allthishashappenedwithoutanyapparentpreviouschangeinthegeneralcircumstanceswhichhadbroughtontheirdistress。Thedeathofamanatacriticaljuncture，hisdisgust，hisretreat，hisdisgrace，havebroughtinnumerablecalamitiesonawholenation。Acommonsoldier，achild，agirlatthedoorofaninn，havechangedthefaceoffortune，andalmostofnature。

Such，andofteninfluencedbysuchcauses，hascommonlybeenthefateofmonarchiesoflongduration。Theyhavetheirebbsandtheirflows。ThishasbeeneminentlythefateofthemonarchyofFrance。Therehavebeentimesinwhichnopowerhaseverbeenbroughtsolow。Fewhaveeverflourishedingreaterglory。Byturnselevatedanddepressed，thatpowerhadbeen，onthewhole，ratherontheincrease;anditcontinuednotonlypowerfulbutformidabletothehourofthetotalruinofthemonarchy。Thisfallofthemonarchywasfarfrombeingprecededbyanyexteriorsymptomsofdecline。Theinteriorwerenotvisibletoeveryeye;andathousandaccidentsmighthavepreventedtheoperationofwhatthemostclear-sightedwerenotabletodiscern，northemostprovidenttodivine。AverylittletimebeforeitsdreadfulcatastrophetherewasakindofexteriorsplendourinthesituationoftheCrown，whichusuallyaddstogovernmentstrengthandauthorityathome。TheCrownseemedthentohaveobtainedsomeofthemostsplendidobjectsofstateambition。NoneofthecontinentalpowersofEuropeweretheenemiesofFrance。Theywerealleithertacitlydisposedtoher，orpubliclyconnectedwithher;andinthosewhokeptthemostalooftherewaslittleappearanceofjealousy;ofanimositytherewasnoappearanceatall。TheBritishnation，hergreatpreponderatingrival;shehadhumbled;toallappearanceshehadweakened;certainlyhadendangered，bycuttingoffaverylarge，andbyfarthemostgrowingpartofherempire。Inthatitsacmeofhumanprosperityandgreatness，inthehighandpalmystateofthemonarchyofFrance，itfelltothegroundwithoutastruggle。Itfellwithoutanyofthosevicesinthemonarchwhichhavesometimesbeenthecausesofthefallofkingdoms，butwhichexisted，withoutanyvisibleeffectonthestate，inthehighestdegreeinmanyotherprinces;and，farfromdestroyingtheirpower，hadonlyleftsomeslightstainsontheircharacter。Thefinancialdifficultieswereonlypretextsandinstrumentsofthosewhoaccomplishedtheruinofthatmonarchy。Theywerenotthecausesofit。

Deprivedoftheoldgovernment，deprivedinamannerofallgovernment，France，fallenasamonarchy，tocommonspeculatorsmighthaveappearedmorelikelytobeanobjectofpityorinsult，accordingtothedispositionofthecircumjacentpowers，thantobethescourgeandterrorofthemall：butoutofthetombofthemurderedmonarchyinFrancehasarisenavast，tremendousunformedspectre，inafarmoreterrificguisethananywhicheveryethaveoverpoweredtheimaginationandsubduedthefortitudeofman。Goingstraightforwardtoitsend，unappalledbyperil，uncheckedbyremorse，despisingallcommonmaximsandallcommonmeans，thathideousphantomoverpoweredthosewhocouldnotbelieveitwaspossibleshecouldatallexist，exceptontheprincipleswhichhabitratherthannaturehadpersuadedthemwerenecessarytotheirownparticularwelfare，andtotheirownordinarymodesofaction。Buttheconstitutionofanypoliticalbeing，aswellasthatofanyphysicalbeing，oughttobeknown，beforeonecanventuretosaywhatisfitforitsconservation，orwhatisthepropermeansofitspower。Thepoisonofotherstatesisthefoodofthenewrepublic。Thatbankruptcy，theveryapprehensionofwhichisoneofthecausesassignedforthefallofthemonarchy，wasthecapitalonwhichsheopenedhertrafficwiththeworld。

LABOURANDWAGES。

Inthecaseofthefarmerandthelabourer，theirinterestsarealwaysthesame，anditisabsolutelyimpossiblethattheirfreecontractscanbeoneroustoeitherparty。Itistheinterestofthefarmer，thathisworkshouldbedonewitheffectandcelerity：，andthatcannotbe，unlessthelaboureriswellfed，andotherwisefoundwithsuchnecessariesofanimallife，accordingtohishabitudes，asmaykeepthebodyinfullforce，andthemindgayandcheerful。Forofalltheinstrumentsofhistrade，thelabourofman(whattheancientwritershavecalledtheinstrumentumvocale)isthatonwhichheismosttorelyfortherepaymentofhiscapital。Theothertwo，thesemivocaleintheancientclassification，thatis，theworkingstockofcattle，andtheinstrumentummutum，suchascarts，ploughs，spades，andsoforth，thoughnotallinconsiderableinthemselves，areverymuchinferiorinutilityorinexpense;or，withoutagivenportionofthefirst，arenothingatall。For，inallthingswhatever，themindisthemostvaluableandthemostimportant;andinthisscalethewholeofagricultureisinanaturalandjustorder;thebeastisasaninformingprincipletotheploughandcart;

thelabourerisasreasontothebeast;andthefarmerisasathinkingandpresidingprincipletothelabourer。Anattempttobreakthischainofsubordinationinanypartisequallyabsurd;buttheabsurdityisthemostmischievousinpracticaloperation，whereitisthemosteasy，thatis，whereitisthemostsubjecttoanerroneousjudgment。

Itisplainlymorethefarmer’sinterestthathismenshouldthrive，thanthathishorsesshouldbewellfed，sleek，plump，andfitforuse，orthanthathiswaggonsandploughsshouldbestrong，ingoodrepair，andfitforservice。

Ontheotherhand，ifthefarmerceasetoprofitofthelabourer，andthathiscapitalisnotcontinuallymanuredandfructified，itisimpossiblethatheshouldcontinuethatabundantnutriment，andclothing，andlodging，properfortheprotectionoftheinstrumentsheemploys。

Itisthereforethefirstandfundamentalinterestofthelabourer，thatthefarmershouldhaveafullincomingprofitontheproductofhislabour。Thepropositionisself-evident，andnothingbutthemalignity，perverseness，andill-governedpassionsofmankind，andparticularlytheenvytheybeartoeachother’sprosperity，couldpreventtheirseeingandacknowledgingit，withthankfulnesstothebenignandwiseDisposerofallthings，whoobligesmen，whethertheywillornot，inpursuingtheirownselfishinterests，toconnectthegeneralgoodwiththeirownindividualsuccess。

Butwhoaretojudgewhatthatprofitandadvantageoughttobe？

Certainlynoauthorityonearth。Itisamatterofconventiondictatedbythereciprocalconveniencesoftheparties，andindeedbytheirreciprocalnecessities——But，ifthefarmerisexcessivelyavaricious？——whysomuchthebetter——themorehedesirestoincreasehisgains，themoreinterestedisheinthegoodconditionofthoseuponwhoselabourhisgainsmustprincipallydepend。

Ishallbetoldbythezealotsofthesectofregulation，thatthismaybetrue，andmaybesafelycommittedtotheconventionofthefarmerandthelabourer，whenthelatterisintheprimeofhisyouth，andatthetimeofhishealthandvigour，andinordinarytimesofabundance。Butincalamitousseasons，underaccidentalillness，indeclininglife，andwiththepressureofanumerousoffspring，thefuturenourishersofthecommunity，butthepresentdrainsandblood-suckersofthosewhoproducethem，whatistobedone？Whenamancannotliveandmaintainhisfamilybythenaturalhireofhislabour，oughtitnottoberaisedbyauthority？

OnthisheadImustbeallowedtosubmit，whatmyopinionshaveeverbeen;andsomewhatatlarge。And，first，Ipremisethatlabouris，asI

havealreadyintimated，acommodity，and，assuch，anarticleoftrade。

IfIamrightinthisnotion，thenlabourmustbesubjecttoallthelawsandprinciplesoftrade，andnottoregulationforeigntothem，andthatmaybetotallyinconsistentwiththoseprinciplesandthoselaws。

Whenanycommodityiscarriedtomarket，itisnotthenecessityofthevender，butthenecessityofthepurchaser，thatraisestheprice。Theextremewantofthesellerhasrather(bythenatureofthingswithwhichweshallinvaincontend)thedirectcontraryoperation。Ifthegoodsatmarketarebeyondthedemand，theyfallintheirvalue;ifbelowit，theyrise。Theimpossibilityofthesubsistenceofaman，whocarrieshislabourtoamarket，istotallybesidethequestioninhiswayofviewingit。Theonlyquestionis，whatisitworthtothebuyer？

Butiftheauthoritycomesinandforcesthebuyertoaprice，whoisthisinthecase(say)ofafarmerwhobuysthelabouroftenortwelvelabouringmen，andthreeorfourhandicrafts，whatisit，buttomakeanarbitrarydivisionofhispropertyamongthem？

Thewholeofhisgains，Isayitwiththemostcertainconviction，neverdoamountanythinglikeinvaluetowhathepaystohislabourersandartificers，sothataverysmalladvanceuponwhatONEmanpaystoMANY

mayabsorbthewholeofwhathepossesses，andamounttoanactualpartitionofallhissubstanceamongthem。Aperfectequalitywillindeedbeproduced;——thatistosay，equalwant，equalwretchedness，equalbeggary，andonthepartofthepetitioners，awoeful，helpless，anddesperatedisappointment。Suchistheeventofallcompulsoryequalizations。Theypulldownwhatisabove。Theyneverraisewhatisbelow：andtheydepresshighandlowtogetherbeneaththelevelofwhatwasoriginallythelowest。

Ifacommodityisraisedbyauthorityabovewhatitwillyieldwithaprofittothebuyer，thatcommoditywillbethelessdealtin。Ifasecondblunderinginterpositionbeusedtocorrecttheblunderofthefirst，andanattemptismadetoforcethepurchaseofthecommodity(oflabourforinstance)，theoneofthesetwothingsmusthappen，eitherthattheforcedbuyerisruined，orthepriceoftheproductofthelabour，inthatproportion，israised。Thenthewheelturnsround，andtheevilcomplainedoffallswithaggravatedweightonthecomplainant。

Thepriceofcorn，whichistheresultoftheexpenseofalltheoperationsofhusbandrytakentogether，andforsometimecontinued，willriseonthelabourer，consideredasaconsumer。Theverybestwillbe，thatheremainswherehewas。Butifthepriceofthecornshouldnotcompensatethepriceoflabour，whatisfarmoretobefeared，themostseriousevil，theverydestructionofagricultureitself，istobeapprehended。

Nothingissuchanenemytoaccuracyofjudgmentasacoarsediscrimination：awantofsuchclassificationanddistributionasthesubjectadmitsof。Increasetherateofwagestothelabourer，saytheregulators——asiflabourwasbutonething，andofonevalue。Butthisverybroad，genericterm，LABOUR，admits，atleast，oftwoorthreespecificdescriptions：andthesewillsuffice，atleast，toletgentlemendiscernalittlethenecessityofproceedingwithcautionintheircoerciveguidanceofthosewhoseexistencedependsupontheobservanceofstillnicerdistinctionsandsubdivisionsthancommonlytheyresorttoinformingtheirjudgmentsonthisveryenlargedpartofeconomy。

Thelabourersinhusbandrymaybedivided：1st，intothosewhoareabletoperformthefullworkofaman;thatis，whatcanbedonebyapersonfromtwenty-oneyearsofagetofifty。Iknownohusbandry-work(mowinghardlyexcepted)thatisnotequallywithinthepowerofallpersonswithinthoseages，themoreadvancedfullycompensatingbyknackandhabitwhattheyloseinactivity。Unquestionably，thereisagooddealofdifferencebetweenthevalueofoneman’slabourandthatofanother，fromstrength，dexterity，andhonestapplication。ButIamquitesure，frommybestobservation，thatanygivenfivemenwill，intheirtotal，affordaproportionoflabourequaltoanyotherfivewithintheperiodsoflifeIhavestated;thatis，thatamongsuchfivementherewillbeonepossessingallthequalificationsofagoodworkman，onebad，andtheotherthreemiddling，andapproximatingtothefirstandthelast。

Sothatinsosmallaplatoonasthatofevenfive，youwillfindthefullcomplementofallthatfivemenCANearn。Takingfiveandfivethroughoutthekingdom，theyareequal：therefore，anerrorwithregardtotheequalizationoftheirwagesbythosewhoemployfive，asfarmersdoattheveryleast，cannotbeconsiderable。2ndly。Thosewhoareabletowork，butnotthecompletetaskofaday-labourer。Thisclassisinfinitelydiversified，butwillaptlyenoughfallintoprincipaldivisions。MEN，fromthedecline，whichafterfiftybecomeseveryyearmoresensibletotheperiodofdebilityanddecrepitude，andthemaladiesthatprecedeafinaldissolution。WOMEN，whoseemploymentonhusbandryisbutoccasional，andwhodiffermoreineffectivelabouronefromanother，thanmendo，onaccountofgestation，nursing，anddomesticmanagement，overandabovethedifferencetheyhaveincommonwithmeninadvancing，instationary，andindeclininglife。CHILDREN，whoproceedonthereverseorder，growingfromlesstogreaterutility，butwithastillgreaterdisproportionofnutrimenttolabourthanisfoundinthesecondofthesesubdivisions：asisvisibletothosewhowillgivethemselvesthetroubleofexaminingintotheinterioreconomyofapoor-house。

Thisinferiorclassificationisintroducedtoshow，thatlawsprescribing，ormagistratesexercising，averystiffandofteninapplicablerule，orablindandrashdiscretion，nevercanprovidethejustproportionsbetweenearningandsalaryontheonehand，andnutrimentontheother：whereasinterest，habit，andthetacitconvention，thatarisefromathousandnamelesscircumstances，produceaTACTthatregulateswithoutdifficulty，whatlawsandmagistratescannotregulateatall。Thefirstclassoflabourwantsnothingtoequalizeit;

itequalizesitself。Thesecondandthirdarenotcapableofanyequalization。

Butwhatiftherateofhiretothelabourercomesfarshortofhisnecessarysubsistence，andthecalamityofthetimeissogreatastothreatenactualfamine？Isthepoorlabourertobeabandonedtotheflintyheartandgripinghandofbaseself-interest，supportedbytheswordoflaw，especiallywhenthereisreasontosupposethattheveryavariceoffarmersthemselveshasconcurredwiththeerrorsofgovernmenttobringfamineontheland？

ACOMPLETEREVOLUTION。

BeforethisofFrance，theannalsofalltimehavenotfurnishedaninstanceofaCOMPLETErevolution。ThatRevolutionseemstohaveextendedeventotheconstitutionofthemindofman。Ithasthisofwonderfulinit，thatitresembleswhatLordVerulamsaysoftheoperationsofnature。Itwasperfect，notonlyinitselementsandprinciples，butinallitsmembersanditsorgansfromtheverybeginning。ThemoralschemeofFrancefurnishestheonlypatterneverknown，whichtheywhoadmirewillINSTANTLYresemble。Itisindeedaninexhaustiblerepertoryofonekindofexamples。Inmywretchedcondition，thoughhardlytobeclassedwiththeliving，Iamnotsafefromthem。Theyhavetigerstofalluponanimatedstrength。Theyhavehyaenastopreyuponcarcasses。Thenationalmenagerieiscollectedbythefirstphysiologistsofthetime;anditisdefectiveinnodescriptionofsavagenature。Theypursueevensuchasme，intotheobscurestretreats，andhaulthembeforetheirrevolutionarytribunals。

Neithersex，norage，——northesanctuaryofthetomb，issacredtothem。

Theyhavesodeterminedahatredtoallprivilegedorders，thattheydenyeventothedepartedthesadimmunitiesofthegrave。Theyarenotwhollywithoutanobject。Theirturpitudepurveystotheirmalice;andtheyunplumbthedeadforbulletstoassassinatetheliving。Ifallrevolutionistswerenotproofagainstallcaution，Ishouldrecommendittotheirconsideration，thatnopersonswereeverknowninhistory，eithersacredorprofane，tovexthesepulchre，and，bytheirsorceries，tocallupthepropheticdead，withanyotherevent，thanthepredictionoftheirowndisastrousfate——“Leaveme，ohleavemetorepose！”

BRITISHGOVERNMENTININDIA。

TheBritishgovernmentinIndiabeingasubordinateanddelegatedpower，itoughttobeconsideredasafundamentalprincipleinsuchasystem，thatitistobepreservedinthestrictestobediencetothegovernmentathome。AdministrationinIndia，atanimmensedistancefromtheseatofthesupremeauthority;intrustedwiththemostextensivepowers;liabletothegreatesttemptations;possessingtheamplestmeansofabuse;rulingoverapeopleguardedbynodistinctorwell-ascertainedprivileges，whoselanguage，manners，andradicalprejudicesrendernotonlyredress，butallcomplaintontheirpart，amatterofextremedifficulty;suchanadministration，itisevident，nevercanbemadesubservienttotheinterestsofGreatBritain，oreventolerabletothenatives，butbythestrictestrigourinexactingobediencetothecommandsoftheauthoritylawfullysetoverit。

MONEYANDSCIENCE。

Myexertions，whatevertheyhavebeen，weresuchasnohopesofpecuniaryrewardcouldpossiblyexcite;andnopecuniarycompensationcanpossiblyrewardthem。Betweenmoneyandsuchservices，ifdonebyablermenthanIam，thereisnocommonprincipleofcomparison：theyarequantitiesincommensurable。Moneyismadeforthecomfortandconvenienceofanimallife。Itcannotbearewardforwhatmereanimallifemustindeedsustain，butnevercaninspire。WithsubmissiontohisGrace，Ihavenothadmorethansufficient。Astoanynobleuse，ItrustIknowhowtoemploy，aswellashe，amuchgreaterfortunethanhepossesses。Inamoreconfinedapplication，Icertainlystandinneedofeverykindofreliefandeasementmuchmorethanhedoes。WhenIsayI

havenotreceivedmorethanIdeserve，isthisthelanguageIholdtomajesty？No！Far，veryfar，fromit！Beforethatpresence，Iclaimnomeritatall。Everythingtowardsmeisfavour，andbounty。Onestyletoagraciousbenefactor;anothertoaproudandinsultingfoe。

HisGraceispleasedtoaggravatemyguilt，bychargingmyacceptanceofhismajesty’sgrantasadeparturefrommyideas，andthespiritofmyconductwithregardtoeconomy。Ifitbe，myideasofeconomywerefalseandill-founded。ButtheyaretheDukeofBedford’sideasofeconomyI

havecontradicted，andnotmyown。Ifhemeanstoalludetocertainbillsbroughtinbymeonamessagefromthethronein1782，Itellhim，thatthereisnothinginmyconductthatcancontradicteithertheletterorthespiritofthoseacts。DoeshemeanthePay-officeAct？I

takeitforgrantedhedoesnot。Theacttowhichhealludes，is，I

suppose，theEstablishmentAct。IgreatlydoubtwhetherhisGracehaseverreadtheoneortheother。Thefirstofthesesystemscostme，witheveryassistancewhichmythensituationgaveme，painsincredible。I

foundanopinioncommonthroughalltheoffices，andgeneralinthepublicatlarge，thatitwouldproveimpossibletoreformandmethodizetheofficeofpaymaster-general。Iundertookit，however;andI

succeededinmyundertaking。Whetherthemilitaryservice，orwhetherthegeneraleconomyofourfinances，haveprofitedbythatact，Ileavetothosewhoareacquaintedwiththearmy，andwiththetreasury，tojudge。

POLITICALAXIOMS。

I。

Ofallthings，anindiscreettamperingwiththetradeofprovisionsisthemostdangerous，anditisalwaysworstinthetimewhenmenaremostdisposedtoit：thatis，inthetimeofscarcity。Becausethereisnothingonwhichthepassionsofmenaresoviolent，andtheirjudgmentsoweak，andonwhichthereexistssuchamultitudeofill-foundedpopularprejudices。

II。

Thegreatuseofgovernmentisasarestraint;andthereisnorestraintwhichitoughttoputuponothers，anduponitselftoo，ratherthanthatwhichisimposedonthefuryofspeculatingundercircumstancesofirritation。Thenumberofidletales，spreadaboutbytheindustryoffaction，andbythezealoffoolishgood-intention，andgreedilydevouredbythemalignantcredulityofmankind，tendsinfinitelytoaggravateprejudices，which，inthemselves，aremorethansufficientlystrong。Inthatstateofaffairs，andofthepublicwithrelationtothem，thefirstthingthatgovernmentowestous，thepeople，isINFORMATION;thenextistimelycoercion：——theonetoguideourjudgment;theothertoregulateourtempers。

III。

Toprovideforusinournecessitiesisnotinthepowerofgovernment。

Itwouldbeavainpresumptioninstatesmentothinktheycandoit。Thepeoplemaintainthem，andnottheythepeople。Itisinthepowerofgovernmenttopreventmuchevil;itcandoverylittlepositivegoodinthis，orperhapsinanythingelse。Itisnotonlysoofthestateandstatesmen，butofalltheclassesanddescriptionsoftherich——theyarethepensionersofthepoor，andaremaintainedbytheirsuperfluity。

Theyareunderanabsolute，hereditary，andindefeasibledependenceonthosewholabour，andaremiscalledthepoor。

IV。

Thelabouringpeopleareonlypoor，becausetheyarenumerous。Numbersintheirnatureimplypoverty。Inafairdistributionamongavastmultitudenonecanhavemuch。Thatclassofdependentpensionerscalledtherichissoextremelysmall，thatifalltheirthroatswerecut，andadistributionmadeofalltheyconsumeinayear，itwouldnotgiveabitofbreadandcheeseforonenight’ssuppertothosewholabour，andwhoinrealityfeedboththepensionersandthemselves。

V。

Butthethroatsoftherichoughtnottobecut，northeirmagazinesplundered;becauseintheirpersonstheyaretrusteesforthosewholabour，andtheirhoardsarethebanking-housesoftheselatter。Whethertheymeanitornot，theydo，ineffect，executetheirtrust——somewithmore，somewithless，fidelityandjudgment。But，onthewhole，thedutyisperformed，andeverythingreturns，deductingsomeverytriflingcommissionanddiscount，totheplacefromwhenceitarose。Whenthepoorrisetodestroytherich，theyactaswiselyfortheirownpurposesaswhentheyburnmills，andthrowcornintotheriver，tomakebreadcheap。

VI。

WhenIsay，thatweofthepeopleoughttobeinformed，inclusivelyI

say，weoughtnottobeflattered;flatteryisthereverseofinstruction。ThePOORinthatcasewouldberenderedasimprovidentastherich，whichwouldnotbeatallgoodforthem。

VII。

Nothingcanbesobaseandsowickedasthepoliticalcantinglanguage，“ThelabouringPOOR。”Letcompassionbeshowninaction，themorethebetter，accordingtoeveryman’sability;butlettherebenolamentationoftheircondition。Itisnorelieftotheirmiserablecircumstances;itisonlyaninsulttotheirmiserableunderstandings。

Itarisesfromatotalwantofcharity，oratotalwantofthought。Wantofonekindwasneverrelievedbywantofanyotherkind。Patience，labour，sobriety，frugality，andreligion，shouldberecommendedtothem;alltherestisdownrightFRAUD。Itishorribletocallthem“TheONCEHAPPYlabourer。”

VIII。

Whetherwhatmaybecalledthemoralorphilosophicalhappinessofthelaboriousclassesisincreasedornot，Icannotsay。Theseatofthatspeciesofhappinessisinthemind;andtherearefewdatatoascertainthecomparativestateofthemindatanytwoperiods。Philosophicalhappinessistowantlittle。Civilorvulgarhappinessistowantmuch，andtoenjoymuch。IX。

Ifthehappinessoftheanimalman(whichcertainlygoessomewheretowardsthehappinessoftherationalman)betheobjectofourestimate，thenIassertwithouttheleasthesitation，thattheconditionofthosewholabour(inalldescriptionsoflabour，andinallgradationsoflabour，fromthehighesttothelowestinclusively)isonthewholeextremelymeliorated，ifmoreandbetterfoodisanystandardofmelioration。Theyworkmore，itiscertain，buttheyhavetheadvantageoftheiraugmentedlabour;yetwhetherthatincreaseoflabourbeonthewholeaGOODoranEVIL，isaconsiderationthatwouldleadusagreatway，andisnotformypresentpurpose。Butastothefactofthemeliorationoftheirdiet，IshallenterintothedetailofproofwheneverIamcalledupon：inthemeantime，theknowndifficultyofcontentingthemwithanythingbutbreadmadeofthefinestflour，andmeatofthefirstquality，isproofsufficient。

X。

Ifurtherassert，thatevenunderallthehardshipsofthelastyear，thelabouringpeopledid，eitheroutoftheirdirectgains，orfromcharity(whichitseemsisnowaninsulttothem)，infact，farebetterthantheydidinseasonsofcommonplenty，fiftyorsixtyyearsago;orevenattheperiodofmyEnglishobservation，whichisaboutforty-fouryears。Ievenassert，thatfullasmanyinthatclassaseverwereknowntodoitbeforecontinuedtosavemoney;andthisIcanprove，sofarasmyowninformationandexperienceextend。

XI。

Itisnottruethattherateofwageshasnotincreasedwiththenominalpriceofprovisions。Iallowithasnotfluctuatedwiththatprice，noroughtit;andthesquiresofNorfolkhaddinedwhentheygaveitastheiropinion，thatitmightoroughttoriseandfallwiththemarketofprovisions。TherateofwagesintruthhasnoDIRECTrelationtothatprice。Labourisacommoditylikeeveryother，andrisesorfallsaccordingtothedemand。Thisisinthenatureofthings;however，thenatureofthingshasprovidedfortheirnecessities。Wageshavebeentwiceraisedinmytime：andtheybearafullproportionorevenagreaterthanformerly，tothemediumofprovisionduringthelastbadcycleoftwentyyears。Theybearafullproportiontotheresultoftheirlabour。Ifwewerewildlytoattempttoforcethembeyondit，thestonewhichwehadforcedupthehillwouldonlyfallbackupontheminadiminisheddemand，orwhatindeedisthefarlesserevil，anaggravatedprice，ofalltheprovisionswhicharetheresultoftheirmanualtoil。

XII。

Thereisanimpliedcontract，muchstrongerthananyinstrumentorarticleofagreementbetweenthelabourerinanyoccupationandhisemployer——thatthelabour，sofarasthatlabourisconcerned，shallbesufficienttopaytotheemployeraprofitonhiscapital，andacompensationforhisrisk;inaword，thatthelabourshallproduceanadvantageequaltothepayment。Whateverisabovethat，isadirectTAX;

andiftheamountofthattaxbelefttothewillandpleasureofanother，itisanARBITRARYTAX。

DISAPPOINTEDAMBITION。

Thetruecauseofhisdrawingsoshockingapictureisnomorethanthis，anditoughtrathertoclaimourpitythanexciteourindignation;——hefindshimselfoutofpower;andthisconditionisintolerabletohim。Thesamesunwhichgildsallnature，andexhilaratesthewholecreation，doesnotshineupondisappointedambition。Itissomethingthatraysoutofdarkness，andinspiresnothingbutgloomandmelancholy。Meninthisdeplorablestateofmindfindacomfortinspreadingthecontagionoftheirspleen。Theyfindanadvantagetoo;foritisageneralpopularerrortoimaginetheloudestcomplainersforthepublictobethemostanxiousforitswelfare。Ifsuchpersonscananswertheendsofreliefandprofittothemselves，theyareapttobecarelessenoughabouteitherthemeansortheconsequences。

DIFFICULTYANINSTRUCTOR。

TheirpurposeeverywhereseemstohavebeentoevadeandslipasidefromDIFFICULTY。Thisithasbeenthegloryofthegreatmastersinalltheartstoconfront，andtoovercome;andwhentheyhadovercomethefirstdifficulty，toturnitintoaninstrumentfornewconquestsovernewdifficulties;thustoenablethemtoextendtheempireoftheirscience;

andeventopushforward，beyondthereachoftheiroriginalthoughts，thelandmarksofthehumanunderstandingitself。Difficultyisasevereinstructor，setoverusbythesupremeordinanceofaparentalGuardianandLegislator，whoknowsusbetterthanweknowourselves，ashelovesusbettertoo。Pateripsecolendihaudfacilemesseviamvoluit。Hethatwrestleswithusstrengthensournerves，andsharpensourskill。Ourantagonistisourhelper。Thisamicableconflictwithdifficultyobligesustoanintimateacquaintancewithourobject，andcompelsustoconsideritinallitsrelations。Itwillnotsufferustobesuperficial。Itisthewantofnervesofunderstandingforsuchatask，itisthedegeneratefondnessfortrickingshort-cuts，andlittlefallaciousfacilities，thathasinsomanypartsoftheworldcreatedgovernmentswitharbitrarypowers。TheyhavecreatedthelatearbitrarymonarchyofFrance;theyhavecreatedthearbitraryrepublicofParis。

Withthemdefectsinwisdomaretobesuppliedbytheplenitudeofforce。Theygetnothingbyit。Commencingtheirlaboursonaprincipleofsloth，theyhavethecommonfortuneofslothfulmen。Thedifficulties，whichtheyratherhadeludedthanescaped，meetthemagainintheircourse;theymultiplyandthickenonthem;theyareinvolved，throughalabyrinthofconfuseddetail，inanindustrywithoutlimit，andwithoutdirection;and，inconclusion，thewholeoftheirworkbecomesfeeble，vicious，andinsecure。

ItisthisinabilitytowrestlewithdifficultywhichhasobligedthearbitraryAssemblyofFrancetocommencetheirschemesofreformwithabolitionandtotaldestruction。Butisitindestroyingandpullingdownthatskillisdisplayed？Yourmobcandothisaswellatleastasyourassemblies。Theshallowestunderstanding，therudesthand，ismorethanequaltothattask。Rageandphrensywillpulldownmoreinhalfanhourthanprudence，deliberation，andforesightcanbuildupinahundredyears。Theerrorsanddefectsofoldestablishmentsarevisibleandpalpable。Itcallsforlittleabilitytopointthemout;andwhereabsolutepowerisgiven，itrequiresbutawordwhollytoabolishtheviceandtheestablishmenttogether。Thesamelazybutrestlessdisposition，whichlovesslothandhatesquiet，directsthesepoliticians，whentheycometoworkforsupplyingtheplaceofwhattheyhavedestroyed。Tomakeeverythingthereverseofwhattheyhaveseen，isquiteaseasyastodestroy。Nodifficultiesoccurinwhathasneverbeentried。Criticismisalmostbaffledindiscoveringthedefectsofwhathasnotexisted;andeagerenthusiasmandcheatinghopehaveallthewidefieldofimagination，inwhichtheymayexpatiatewithlittleornoopposition。

SOVEREIGNJURISDICTIONS。

Withregardtothesovereignjurisdictions，Imustobserve，Sir，thatwhoevertakesaviewofthiskingdominacursorymannerwillimagine，thathebeholdsasolid，compacted，uniformsystemofmonarchy;inwhichallinferiorjurisdictionsarebutasraysdivergingfromonecentre。Butonexaminingitmorenearly，youfindmucheccentricityandconfusion。Itisnotamonarchyinstrictness。But，asintheSaxontimesthiscountrywasanheptarchy，itisnowastrangesortofPENTARCHY。Itisdividedintofiveseveraldistinctprincipalities，besidesthesupreme。ThereisindeedthisdifferencefromtheSaxontimes，thatasintheitinerantexhibitionsofthestage，forwantofacompletecompany，theyareobligedtothrowavarietyofpartsontheirchiefperformer;sooursovereigncondescendshimselftoactnotonlytheprincipal，butallthesubordinate，partsintheplay。Hecondescendstodissipatetheroyalcharacter，andtotriflewiththoselight，subordinate，lacqueredsceptresinthosehandsthatsustaintheballrepresentingtheworld，orwhichwieldthetridentthatcommandstheocean。Crossabrook，andyoulosethekingofEngland;butyouhavesomecomfortincomingagainunderhismajesty，though“shornofhisbeams，“andnomorethanprinceofWales。Gotothenorth，andyoufindhimdwindledtoadukeofLancaster;turntothewestofthatnorth，andhepopsuponyouinthehumblecharacterofearlofChester。

Travelafewmileson，theearlofChesterdisappears;andthekingsurprisesyouagainascountpalatineofLancaster。IfyoutravelbeyondMountEdgecombe，youfindhimoncemoreinhisincognito，andheisdukeofCornwall。Sothat，quitefatiguedandsatiatedwiththisdullvariety，youareinfinitelyrefreshedwhenyoureturntothesphereofhispropersplendour，andbeholdyouramiablesovereigninhistrue，simple，undisguised，nativecharacterofmajesty。

PRUDERYOFFALSEREFORM。

Everyonemustrememberthatthecabalsetoutwiththemostastonishingprudery，bothmoralandpolitical。Those，whoinafewmonthsaftersousedoverheadandearsintothedeepestanddirtiestpitsofcorruption，criedoutviolentlyagainsttheindirectpracticesintheelectingandmanagingofparliaments，whichhadformerlyprevailed。Thismarvellousabhorrencewhichthecourthadsuddenlytakentoallinfluence，wasnotonlycirculatedinconversationthroughthekingdom，butpompouslyannouncedtothepublic，withmanyotherextraordinarythings，inapamphletwhichhadalltheappearanceofamanifestopreparatorytosomeconsiderableenterprise。Throughoutitwasasatire，thoughintermsmanagedanddecentenough，onthepoliticsoftheformerreign。Itwasindeedwrittenwithnosmallartandaddress。

Inthispieceappearedthefirstdawningofthenewsystem;therefirstappearedtheidea(thenonlyinspeculation)ofSEPARATINGTHECOURT

FROMTHEADMINISTRATION;ofcarryingeverythingfromnationalconnectiontopersonalregards;andofformingaregularpartyforthatpurpose，underthenameofKING’SMEN。

Torecommendthissystemtothepeople，aperspectiveviewofthecourt，gorgeouslypainted，andfinelyilluminatedfromwithin，wasexhibitedtothegapingmultitude。Partywastobetotallydoneaway，withallitsevilworks。Corruptionwastobecastdownfromcourt，asAtewasfromheaven。Powerwasthenceforwardtobethechosenresidenceofpublicspirit;andnoonewastobesupposedunderanysinisterinfluence，exceptthosewhohadthemisfortunetobeindisgraceatcourt，whichwastostandinlieuofallvicesandallcorruptions。AschemeofperfectiontoberealizedinamonarchyfarbeyondthevisionaryrepublicofPlato。Thewholescenerywasexactlydisposedtocaptivatethosegoodsouls，whosecredulousmoralityissoinvaluableatreasuretocraftypoliticians。Indeedtherewaswherewithaltocharmeverybody，exceptthosefewwhoarenotmuchpleasedwithprofessionsofsupernaturalvirtue，whoknowofwhatstuffsuchprofessionsaremade，forwhatpurposestheyaredesigned，andinwhattheyaresureconstantlytoend。Manyinnocentgentlemen，whohadbeentalkingprosealltheirliveswithoutknowinganythingofthematter，beganatlasttoopentheireyesupontheirownmerits，andtoattributetheirnothavingbeenlordsofthetreasuryandlordsoftrademanyyearsbefore，merelytotheprevalenceofparty，andtotheministerialpower，whichhadfrustratedthegoodintentionsofthecourtinfavouroftheirabilities。Nowwasthetimetounlockthesealedfountainofroyalbounty，whichhadbeeninfamouslymonopolizedandhuckstered，andtoletitflowatlargeuponthewholepeople。Thetimewascometorestoreroyaltytoitsoriginalsplendour。

EXAGGERATION。

Ifafewpunylibellers，actingunderaknotoffactiouspoliticians，withoutvirtue，parts，orcharacter(suchtheyareconstantlyrepresentedbythesegentlemen)，aresufficienttoexcitethisdisturbance，veryperversemustbethedispositionofthatpeopleamongstwhomsuchadisturbancecanbeexcitedbysuchmeans。Itisbesidesnosmallaggravationofthepublicmisfortune，thatthedisease，onthishypothesis，appearstobewithoutremedy。Ifthewealthofthenationbethecauseofitsturbulence，Iimagineitisnotproposedtointroducepoverty，asaconstabletokeepthepeace。Ifourdominionsabroadaretherootswhichfeedallthisrankluxurianceofsedition，itisnotintendedtocutthemoffinordertofamishthefruit。Ifourlibertyhasenfeebledtheexecutivepower，thereisnodesign，Ihope，tocallintheaidofdespotism，tofillupthedeficienciesoflaw。Whatevermaybeintended，thesethingsarenotyetprofessed。Weseemthereforetobedriventoabsolutedespair：forwehavenoothermaterialstoworkuponbutthoseoutofwhichGodhasbeenpleasedtoformtheinhabitantsofthisisland。Iftheseberadicallyandessentiallyvicious，allthatcanbesaidis，thatthosemenareveryunhappy，towhosefortuneordutyitfallstoadministertheaffairsofthisuntowardpeople。Ihearitindeedsometimesasserted，thatasteadyperseveranceinthepresentmeasures，andarigorouspunishmentofthosewhoopposethem，willincourseoftimeinfalliblyputanendtothesedisorders。Butthis，inmyopinion，issaidwithoutmuchobservationofourpresentdisposition，andwithoutanyknowledgeatallofthegeneralnatureofmankind。Ifthematterofwhichthisnationiscomposedbesoveryfermentableasthesegentlemendescribeit，leavenneverwillbewantingtoworkitup，aslongasdiscontent，revenge，andambition，haveexistenceintheworld。

Particularpunishmentsarethecureforaccidentaldistempersinthestate;theyinflameratherthanallaythoseheatswhicharisefromthesettledmismanagementofthegovernment，orfromanaturalindispositioninthepeople。Itisoftheutmostmomentnottomakemistakesintheuseofstrongmeasures;andfirmnessisthenonlyavirtuewhenitaccompaniesthemostperfectwisdom。Intruth，inconstancyisasortofnaturalcorrectiveoffollyandignorance。

TACTICSOFCABAL。

Itisalawofnature，thatwhoeverisnecessarytowhatwehavemadeourobject，issure，insomeway，orinsometimeorother，tobecomeourmaster。Allthis，however，issubmittedto，inordertoavoidthatmonstrousevilofgoverninginconcurrencewiththeopinionofthepeople。Foritseemstobelaiddownasamaxim，thatakinghassomesortofinterestingivinguneasinesstohissubjects：thatallwhoarepleasingtothem，aretobeofcoursedisagreeabletohim：thatassoonasthepersonswhoareodiousatcourtareknowntobeodioustothepeople，itissnatchedatasaluckyoccasionofshoweringdownuponthemallkindsofemolumentsandhonours。Noneareconsideredaswell？wisherstothecrown，butthosewhoadvisedtosomeunpopularcourseofaction;nonecapableofservingit，butthosewhoareobligedtocallateveryinstantuponallitspowerforthesafetyoftheirlives。Nonearesupposedtobefitpriestsinthetempleofgovernment，butthepersonswhoarecompelledtoflyintoitforsanctuary。Suchistheeffectofthisrefinedproject;suchisevertheresultofallthecontrivances，whichareusedtofreemenfromtheservitudeoftheirreasonandfromthenecessityoforderingtheiraffairsaccordingtotheirevidentinterests。Thesecontrivancesobligethemtorunintoarealandruinousservitude，inordertoavoidasupposedrestraintthatmightbeattendedwithadvantage。

GOVERNMENT，RELATIVE，NOTABSOLUTE。

Inevergovernmyself——norationalmaneverdidgovernhimself——byabstractionsanduniversals。Idonotputabstractideaswhollyoutofanyquestion，becauseIwellknow，thatunderthatnameIshoulddismissprinciples;andthatwithouttheguideandlightofsound，well-understoodprinciples，allreasoningsinpolitics，asineverythingelse，wouldbeonlyaconfusedjumbleofparticularfactsanddetails，withoutthemeansofdrawingoutanysortoftheoreticalorpracticalconclusion。Astatesmandiffersfromaprofessorinanuniversity：thelatterhasonlythegeneralviewofsociety;theformer——thestatesmen——hasanumberofcircumstancestocombinewiththosegeneralideas，andtotakeintohisconsideration。Circumstancesareinfinite，areinfinitelycombined;arevariableandtransient;hewhodoesnottakethemintoconsiderationisnoterroneous，butstarkmad——datoperamutcumrationeinsaniat——heismetaphysicallymad。A

statesman，neverlosingsightofprinciples，istobeguidedbycircumstances;andjudgingcontrarytotheexigenciesofthemomenthemayruinhiscountryforever。

Igoonthisground，thatgovernment，representingthesociety，hasageneralsuperintendingcontroloveralltheactions，andoverallthepubliclypropagateddoctrinesofmen，withoutwhichitnevercouldprovideadequatelyforallthewantsofsociety;butthenitistousethispowerwithanequitablediscretion，theonlybondofsovereignauthority。Foritisnot，perhaps，somuchbytheassumptionofunlawfulpowers，asbytheunwiseorunwarrantableuseofthosewhicharemostlegal，thatgovernmentsopposetheirtrueendandobject;forthereissuchathingastyrannyaswellasusurpation。Youcanhardlystatetomeacase，towhichlegislatureisthemostconfessedlycompetent，inwhich，iftherulesofbenignityandprudencearenotobserved，themostmischievousandoppressivethingsmaynotbedone。Sothatafterall，itisamoralandvirtuousdiscretion，andnotanyabstracttheoryofright，whichkeepsgovernmentsfaithfultotheirends。Crude，unconnectedtruthsareintheworldofpracticewhatfalsehoodsareintheory。

Areasonable，prudent，provident，andmoderatecoercionmaybeameansofpreventingactsofextremeferocityandrigour;forbypropagatingexcessiveandextravagantdoctrines，suchextravagantdisorderstakeplace，asrequirethemostperilousandfiercecorrectionstoopposethem。Itisnotmorallytrue，thatweareboundtoestablishineverycountrythatformofreligionwhichinOURmindsismostagreeabletotruth，andconducesmosttotheeternalhappinessofmankind。Inthesamemanneritisnottruethatweare，againsttheconvictionofourownjudgment，toestablishasystemofopinionsandpractisesdirectlycontrarytothoseends，onlybecausesomemajorityofthepeople，toldbythehead，maypreferit。Noconscientiousmanwouldwillinglyestablishwhatheknewtobefalseandmischievousinreligion，orinanythingelse。Nowiseman，onthecontrary，wouldtyrannicallysetuphisownsensesoastoreprobatethatofthegreatprevailingbodyofthecommunity，andpaynoregardtotheestablishedopinionsandprejudicesofmankindorrefusetothemthemeansofsecuringareligiousinstructionsuitabletotheseprejudices。Agreatdealdependsonthestateinwhichyoufindmen。

GENERALVIEWS。

Thefoundationsonwhichobediencetogovernmentsisfounded，arenottobeconstantlydiscussed。Thatwearehere，supposesthediscussionalreadymadeandthedisputesettled。Wemustassumetherightsofwhatrepresentsthepublictocontroltheindividual，tomakehiswillandhisactstosubmittotheirwill，untilsomeintolerablegrievanceshallmakeusknowthatitdoesnotansweritsend，andwillsubmitneithertoreformationnorrestraint。Otherwiseweshoulddisputeallthepointsofmoralitybeforewecanpunishamurderer，robber，andadulterer;weshouldanalyzeallsociety。Dangersbybeingdespisedgrowgreat;sotheydobyabsurdprovisionagainstthem。Stultiestdixissenonputaram。Whetheranearlydiscoveryofevildesigns，anearlydeclaration，andanearlyprecautionagainstthem，bemorewisethantostifleallinquiryaboutthem，forfeartheyshoulddeclarethemselvesmoreearlythanotherwisetheywould，andthereforeprecipitatetheevil——allthisdependsontherealityofthedanger。Isitonlyanunbookishjealousy，asShakspearecallsit？Itisaquestionoffact。Doesadesignagainsttheconstitutionofthiscountryexist？

Ifitdoes，andifitiscarriedonwithincreasingvigourandactivitybyarestlessfaction，andifitreceivescountenancebythemostardentandenthusiasticapplausesofitsobject，inthegreatcouncilofthiskingdom，bymenofthefirstparts，whichthiskingdomproduces，perhapsbythefirstithaseverproduced，canIthinkthatthereisnodanger？，Iftherebedanger，musttherebenoprecautionatallagainstit？IfyouaskwhetherIthinkthedangerurgentandimmediate，Ianswer，thankGod，Idonot。Thebodyofthepeopleisyetsound，theconstitutionisintheirhearts，whilewickedmenareendeavouringtoputanotherintotheirheads。ButifIseetheverysamebeginnings，whichhavecommonlyendedingreatcalamities，Ioughttoactasiftheymightproducetheverysameeffects。Earlyandprovidentfearisthemotherofsafety;becauseinthatstateofthingsthemindisfirmandcollected，andthejudgmentunembarrassed。Butwhenthefear，andtheevilfeared，comeontogether，andpressatonceuponus，deliberationitselfisruinous，whichsavesuponallotheroccasions;becausewhenperilsareinstant，itdelaysdecision;themanisinaflutter，andinahurry，andhisjudgmentisgone，asthejudgmentofthedeposedkingofFranceandhisministerswasgone，ifthelatterdidnotpremeditatelybetrayhim。Hewasjustcomefromhisusualamusementofhunting，whentheheadofthecolumnoftreasonandassassinationwasarrivedathishouse。Letnottheking，letnottheprinceofWales，besurprisedinthismanner。Letnotbothhousesofparliamentbeledintriumphalongwithhim，andhavelawdictatedtothembytheconstitutional，therevolution，andtheUnitariansocieties。Theseinsectreptiles，whilsttheygoononlycaballingandtoasting，onlyfilluswithdisgust;iftheygetabovetheirnaturalsize，andincreasethequantity，whilsttheykeepthequality，oftheirvenom，theybecomeobjectsofthegreatestterror。Aspiderinhisnaturalsizeisonlyaspider，uglyandloathsome;andhisflimsynetisonlyfitforcatchingflies。But，goodGod！supposeaspideraslargeasanox，andthathespreadcablesaboutus，allthewildsofAfricawouldnotproduceanythingsodreadful——

“QualeportentumnequemilitarisDauniainlatisalitesculetis，NecJubaetellusgeneratleonumAridanutrix。”

Thinkofthem，whodaremenaceinthewaytheydointheirpresentstate，whatwouldtheydoiftheyhadpowercommensuratetotheirmalice。GodforbidIevershouldhaveadespoticmaster;butifImust，mychoiceismade。IwillhaveLouisXVI。ratherthanMonsieurBailly，orBrissot，orChabot;ratherGeorgeIII。orGeorgeIV。thanDr。

PriestleyorDr。Kippis，personswhowouldnotloadatyrannouspowerbythepoisonedtauntsofavulgar，low-bredinsolence。Ihopewehavestillspiritenoughtokeepusfromtheoneortheother。Thecontumeliesoftyrannyaretheworstpartsofit。

MAGNITUDEINBUILDING。

Tothesublimeinbuilding，greatnessofdimensionseemsrequisite;foronafewparts，andthosesmall，theimaginationcannotrisetoanyideaofinfinity。Nogreatnessinthemannercaneffectuallycompensateforthewantofproperdimensions。Thereisnodangerofdrawingmenintoextravagantdesignsbythisrule;itcarriesitsowncautionalongwithit。Becausetoogreatalengthinbuildingsdestroysthepurposeofgreatness，whichitwasintendedtopromote;theperspectivewilllessenitinheightasitgainsinlength，andwillbringitatlasttoapoint;turningthewholefigureintoasortoftriangle，thepoorestinitseffectofalmostanyfigurethatcanbepresentedtotheeye。I

haveeverobserved，thatcolonnadesandavenuesoftreesofamoderatelengthwere，withoutcomparison，fargranderthanwhentheyweresufferedtoruntoimmensedistances。Atrueartistshouldputagenerousdeceitonthespectators，andeffectthenoblestdesignsbyeasymethods。Designsthatarevastonlybytheirdimensions，arealwaysthesignofacommonandlowimagination。Noworkofartcanbegreat，butasitdeceives;tobeotherwiseistheprerogativeofnatureonly。Agoodeyewillfixthemediumbetwixtanexcessivelengthorheight(forthesameobjectionliesagainstboth)，andashortorbrokenquantity：andperhapsitmightbeascertainedtoatolerabledegreeofexactness，ifitwasmypurposetodescendfarintotheparticularsofanyart。

SOCIETYANDSOLITUDE。

ThesecondbranchofthesocialpassionsisthatwhichadministerstoSOCIETYINGENERAL。Withregardtothis，Iobserve，thatsociety，merelyassociety，withoutanyparticularheightenings，givesusnopositivepleasureintheenjoyment;butabsoluteandentireSOLITUDE，thatis，thetotalandperpetualexclusionfromallsociety，isasgreatapositivepainascanalmostbeconceived。ThereforeinthebalancebetweenthepleasureofgeneralSOCIETY，andthepainofabsolutesolitude，PAINisthepredominantidea。Butthepleasureofanyparticularsocialenjoymentoutweighsveryconsiderablytheuneasinesscausedbythewantofthatparticularenjoyment;sothatthestrongestsensationsrelativetothehabitudesofPARTICULARSOCIETYaresensationsofpleasure。Goodcompany，livelyconversations，andtheendearmentsoffriendship，fillthemindwithgreatpleasure;atemporarysolitude，ontheotherhand，isitselfagreeable。Thismayperhapsprovethatwearecreaturesdesignedforcontemplationaswellasaction;sincesolitudeaswellassocietyhasitspleasures;asfromtheformerobservationwemaydiscern，thatanentirelifeofsolitudecontradictsthepurposesofourbeing，sincedeathitselfisscarcelyanideaofmoreterror。

EAST-INDIABILLANDCOMPANY。

IthereforefreelyadmittotheEast-Indiatheirclaimtoexcludetheirfellow-subjectsfromthecommerceofhalftheglobe。Iadmittheirclaimtoadministeranannualterritorialrevenueofsevenmillionssterling;

tocommandanarmyofsixtythousandmen;andtodispose(underthecontrolofasovereign，imperialdiscretion，andwiththedueobservanceofthenaturalandlocallaw)ofthelivesandfortunesofthirtymillionsoftheirfellow-creatures。Allthistheypossessbycharter，andbyactsofparliament(inmyopinion)，withoutashadowofcontroversy。

Thosewhocarrytherightsandclaimsofthecompanythefurthestdonotcontendformorethanthis;andallthisIfreelygrant。Butgrantingallthis，theymustgranttome，inmyturn，thatallpoliticalpowerwhichissetovermen，andthatallprivilegeclaimedorexercisedinexclusionofthem，beingwhollyartificial，andforsomuchaderogationfromthenaturalqualityofmankindatlarge，oughttobesomewayorotherexercisedultimatelyfortheirbenefit。

Ifthisistruewithregardtoeveryspeciesofpoliticaldominion，andeverydescriptionofcommercialprivilege，noneofwhichcanbeoriginal，self-derivedrights，orgrantsforthemereprivatebenefitoftheholders，thensuchrights，orprivileges，orwhateverelseyouchoosetocallthem，areallinthestrictestsenseaTRUST;anditisoftheveryessenceofeverytrusttoberenderedACCOUNTABLE;andeventotallytoCEASE，whenitsubstantiallyvariesfromthepurposesforwhichaloneitcouldhavealawfulexistence。

ThisIconceive，Sir，tobetrueoftrustsofpowervestedinthehighesthands，andofsuchasseemtoholdofnohumancreature。Butabouttheapplicationofthisprincipletosubordinate，DERIVATIVE

trusts，Idonotseehowacontroversycanbemaintained。TowhomthenwouldImaketheEast-IndiaCompanyaccountable？Why，toparliament，tobesure;toparliament，fromwhichtheirtrustwasderived;toparliament，whichaloneiscapableofcomprehendingthemagnitudeofitsobject，anditsabuse;andalonecapableofaneffectuallegislativeremedy。Theverycharter，whichisheldouttoexcludeparliamentfromcorrectingmalversationwithregardtothehightrustvestedinthecompany，istheverythingwhichatoncegivesatitleandimposesonusadutytointerferewitheffect，whereverpowerandauthorityoriginatingfromourselvesarepervertedfromtheirpurposes，andbecomeinstrumentsofwrongandviolence。Ifparliament，Sir，hadnothingtodowiththischarter，wemighthavesomesortofEpicureanexcusetostandaloof，indifferentspectatorsofwhatpassesinthecompany’snameinIndiaandinLondon。Butifwearetheverycauseoftheevil，weareinaspecialmannerengagedtotheredress;andforuspassivelytobearwithoppressionscommittedunderthesanctionofourownauthority，isintruthandreasonforthishousetobeanactiveaccompliceintheabuse。

Thatthepower，notoriously，grosslyabused，hasbeenboughtfromusisverycertain。Butthiscircumstance，whichisurgedagainstthebill，becomesanadditionalmotiveforourinterference;lestweshouldbethoughttohavesoldthebloodofmillionsofmen，forthebaseconsiderationofmoney。Wesold，Iadmit，allthatwehadtosell;thatis，ourauthority，notourcontrol。Wehadnotarighttomakeamarketofourduties。