第6章

Theruinousinfluenceofthefactorysystembeganatanearlydaytoattractgeneralattention。WehavealreadyalludedtotheApprentices’

Actof1802。Later，towards1817，RobertOwen，thenamanufacturerinNewLanark，inScotland，afterwardsfounderofEnglishSocialism，begantocalltheattentionoftheGovernment，bymemorialsandpetitions，tothenecessityoflegislativeguaranteesforthehealthoftheoperatives，andespeciallyofchildren。ThelateSirRobertPeelandotherphilanthropistsunitedwithhim，andgraduallysecuredtheFactoryActsof1819，1825，and1851，ofwhichthefirsttwowereneverenforced，andthelastonlyhereandthere。Thislawof1831，baseduponthemotionofSirJ。C。Hobhouse，providedthatincottonmillsnooneundertwenty-oneshouldbeemployedbetweenhalf-pastsevenatnightandhalf-pastfiveinthemorning；andthatinallfactoriesyoungpersonsundereighteenshouldworknolongerthantwelvehoursdaily，andninehoursonSaturday。Butsinceoperativescouldnottestifyagainsttheirmasterswithoutbeingdischarged，thislawhelpedmattersverylittle。Inthegreatcities，wheretheoperativesweremorerestive，thelargermanufacturerscametoanagreementamongthemselvestoobeythelaw；buteventhere，thereweremanywho，liketheemployersinthecountry，didnottroublethemselvesaboutit。Meanwhile，thedemandforatenhours’lawhadbecomelivelyamongtheoperatives；

thatis，foralawwhichshouldforbidalloperativesundereighteenyearsofagetoworklongerthantenhoursdaily；theTradesUnions，bytheiragitation，madethisdemandgeneralthroughoutthemanufacturingpopulation；

thephilanthropicsectionoftheToryparty，thenledbyMichaelSadler，seizedupontheplan，andbroughtitbeforeParliament。Sadlerobtainedaparliamentarycommitteefortheinvestigationofthefactorysystem，andthiscommitteereportedin1832。Itsreportwasemphaticallypartisan，composedbystrongenemiesofthefactorysystem，forpartyends。Sadlerpermittedhimselftobebetrayedbyhisnobleenthusiasmintothemostdistortedanderroneousstatements，drewfromhiswitnessesbytheveryformofhisquestions，answerswhichcontainedthetruth，buttruthinapervertedform。Themanufacturersthemselves，incensedatareportwhichrepresentedthemasmonsters，nowdemandedanofficialinvestigation；theyknewthatanexactreportmust，inthiscase，beadvantageoustothem；

theyknewthatWhigs，genuinebourgeois，wereatthehelm，withwhomtheywereupongoodterms，whoseprincipleswereopposedtoanyrestrictionuponmanufacture。Theyobtainedacommission，indueorder，composedofLiberalbourgeois，whosereportIhavesooftencited。ThiscomessomewhatnearerthetruththanSadler’s，butitsdeviationstherefromareintheoppositedirection。Oneverypageitbetrayssympathywiththemanufacturers，distrustoftheSadlerreport，repugnancetotheworking-menagitatingindependentlyandthesupportersoftheTenHours’Bill。Itnowhererecognisestherightoftheworking-mantoalifeworthyofahumanbeing，toindependentactivity，andopinionsofhisown。ItreproachestheoperativesthatinsustainingtheTenHours’Billtheythought，notofthechildrenonly，butofthemselvesaswell；itcallstheworking-menengagedintheagitationdemagogues，ill-intentioned，malicious，etc。，iswritten，inshort，onthesideofthebourgeoisie；andstillitcannotwhitewashthemanufacturers，andstillitleavessuchamassofinfamiesupontheshouldersoftheemployers，thatevenafterthisreport，theagitationfortheTenHours’Bill，thehatredagainstthemanufacturers，andthecommittee’sseverestepithetsappliedtothemareallfullyjustified。Buttherewastheonedifference，thatwhereastheSadlerreportaccusesthemanufacturersofopen，undisguisedbrutality，itnowbecameevidentthatthisbrutalitywaschieflycarriedonunderthemaskofcivilisationandhumanity。YetDr。Hawkins，themedicalcommissionerforLancashire，expresseshimselfdecidedlyinfavouroftheTenHours’Billintheopeninglinesofhisreport，andCommissionerMackintoshexplainsthathisownreportdoesnotcontainthewholetruth，becauseitisverydifficulttoinducetheoperativestotestifyagainsttheiremployers，andbecausethemanufacturers，besidesbeingforcedintogreaterconcessionstowardstheiroperativesbytheexcitementamongthelatter，areoftenpreparedfortheinspectionofthefactories，havethemswept，thespeedofthemachineryreduced，etc。InLancashireespeciallytheyresortedtothedeviceofbringingtheoverlookersofwork-roomsbeforethecommissioners，andlettingthemtestifyasworking-mentothehumanityoftheemployers，thewholesomeeffectsofthework，andtheindifference，ifnotthehostilityoftheoperatives，towardstheTenHours’Bill。Butthesearenotgenuineworking-men；theyaredesertersfromtheirclass，whohaveenteredtheserviceofthebourgeoisieforbetterpay，andfightintheinterestsofthecapitalistsagainsttheworkers。Theirinterestisthatofthecapitalists，andtheyare，therefore，almostmorehatedbytheworkersthanthemanufacturersthemselves。

Andyetthisreportsufficeswhollytoexhibitthemostshamefulrecklessnessofthemanufacturingbourgeoisietowardsitsemployees，thewholeinfamyoftheindustrialexploitingsysteminitsfullinhumanity。Nothingismorerevoltingthantocomparethelongregisterofdiseasesanddeformitiesengenderedbyoverwork，inthisreport，withthecold，calculatingpoliticaleconomyofthemanufacturers，bywhichtheytrytoprovethatthey，andwiththemallEngland，mustgotoruin，iftheyshouldbeforbiddentocripplesoandsomanychildreneveryyear。ThelanguageofDr。Urealone，whichIhavequoted，wouldbeyetmorerevoltingifitwerenotsopreposterous。

TheresultofthisreportwastheFactoryActof1833，whichforbadetheemploymentofchildrenundernineyearsofage(exceptinsilkmills)，limitedtheworking-hoursofchildrenbetween9-13yearsto48perweek，or9hoursinanyonedayattheutmost；thatofyoungpersonsfrom14-18

yearsofageto69perweek，or12onanyonedayasthemaximum，providedforanhourandahalfastheminimumintervalformeals，andrepeatedthetotalprohibitionofnight-workforpersonsundereighteenyearsofage。Compulsoryschoolattendancetwohoursdailywasprescribedforallchildrenunderfourteenyears，andthemanufacturerdeclaredpunishableincaseofemployingchildrenwithoutacertificateofagefromthefactorysurgeon，andacertificateofschoolattendancefromtheteacher。Asrecompense，theemployerwaspermittedtowithdrawonepennyfromthechild’sweeklyearningstopaytheteacher。Further，surgeonsandinspectorswereappointedtovisitthefactoriesatalltimes，taketestimonyofoperativesonoath，andenforcethelawbyprosecutionbeforeaJusticeofthePeace。ThisisthelawagainstwhichDr。Ureinveighsinsuchunmeasuredterms！

Theconsequenceofthislaw，andespeciallyoftheappointmentofinspectors，wasthereductionofworking-hourstoanaverageoftwelvetothirteen，andthesupersedingofchildrenasfaraspossible。Hereuponsomeofthemostcryingevilsdisappearedalmostwholly。Deformitiesarosenowonlyincasesofweakconstitution，andtheeffectsofoverworkbecamemuchlessconspicuous。Nevertheless，enoughtestimonyremainstobefoundintheFactoryReport，thatthelesserevils，swellingoftheankles，weaknessandpaininthelegs，hips，andback，varicoseveins，ulcersonthelowerextremities，generalweakness，especiallyofthepelvicregion，nausea，wantofappetitealternatingwithunnaturalhunger，indigestion，hypochondria，affectionsofthechestinconsequenceofthedustandfoulatmosphereofthefactories，etc。，etc。，alloccuramongemployeessubjecttotheprovisionsofSirJ。C。Hobhouse’sLaw(of1851)，whichprescribestwelvetothirteenhoursasthemaximum。ThereportsfromGlasgowandManchesterareespeciallyworthyofattentioninthisrespect。Theseevilsremainedtoo，afterthelawof1855，andcontinuetounderminethehealthoftheworking-classtothisday。Carehasbeentakentogivethebrutalprofit-greedofthebourgeoisieahypocritical，civilisedform，torestrainthemanufacturersthroughthearmofthelawfromtooconspicuousvillainies，andthustogivethemapretextforself-complacentlyparadingtheirshamphilanthropy。

Thatisall。Ifanewcommissionwereappointedtoday，itwouldfindthingsprettymuchasbefore。Astotheextemporisedcompulsoryattendanceatschool，itremainedwhollyadeadletter，sincetheGovernmentfailedtoprovidegoodschools。Themanufacturersemployedasteachersworn-outoperatives，towhomtheysentthechildrentwohoursdaily，thuscomplyingwiththeletterofthelaw；butthechildrenlearnednothing。Andeventhereportsofthefactoryinspectors，whicharelimitedtothescopeoftheinspector’sduties，i。e。，theenforcementoftheFactoryAct，givedataenoughtojustifytheconclusionthattheoldevilsinevitablyremain。InspectorsHornerandSaunders，intheirreportsforOctoberandDecember，1843，statethat，inanumberofbranchesinwhichtheemploymentofchildrencanbedispensedwithorsupersededbythatofadults，theworking-dayisstillfourteentosixteenhours，orevenlonger。Amongtheoperativesinthesebranchestheyfoundnumbersofyoungpeoplewhohadjustoutgrowntheprovisionsofthelaw。Manyemployersdisregardthelaw，shortenthemealtimes，workchildrenlongerthanispermitted，andriskprosecution，knowingthatthepossiblefinesaretriflingincomparisonwiththecertainprofitsderivablefromtheoffence。Justatpresentespecially，whilebusinessisexceptionallybrisk，theyareundergreattemptationinthisrespect。

MeanwhiletheagitationfortheTenHours’Billbynomeansdiedoutamongtheoperatives；in1839itwasunderfullheadwayoncemore，andSadler’splace，hehavingdied，wasfilledintheHouseofCommonsbyLordAshleyandRichardOastler，bothTories。Oastlerespecially，whocarriedonaconstantagitationinthefactorydistricts，andhadbeenactiveinthesamewayduringSadler’slife，wastheparticularfavouriteoftheworking-men。Theycalledhimtheir”goodoldking”，”thekingofthefactorychildren”，andthereisnotachildinthefactorydistrictsthatdoesnotknowandreverehim，thatdoesnotjointheprocessionwhichmovestowelcomehimwhenheentersatown。OastlervigorouslyopposedtheNewPoorLawalso，andwasthereforeimprisonedfordebtbyaMr。Thornhill，onwhoseestatehewasemployedasagent，andtowhomheowedmoney。TheWhigsofferedrepeatedlytopayhisdebtandconferotherfavoursuponhimifhewouldonlygiveuphisagitationagainstthePoorLaw。Butinvain；heremainedinprison，whencehepublishedhisFleetPapersagainstthefactorysystemandthePoorLaw。

TheToryGovernmentof1841turneditsattentiononcemoretotheFactoryActs。TheHomeSecretary，SirJamesGraham，proposed，in1845，abillrestrictingtheworking-hoursofchildrentosixandone-half，andmakingtheenactmentsforcompulsoryschoolattendancemoreeffective，theprincipalpointinthisconnectionbeingaprovisionforbetterschools。Thisbillwas，however，wreckedbythejealousyofthedissenters；for，althoughcompulsoryreligiousinstructionwasnotextendedtothechildrenofdissenters，theschoolsprovidedforweretobeplacedunderthegeneralsupervisionoftheEstablishedChurch，andtheBiblemadethegeneralreading-book，religionbeingthusmadethefoundationofallinstruction，whencethedissentersfeltthemselvesthreatened。ThemanufacturersandtheLiberalsgenerallyunitedwiththem，theworking-menweredividedbytheChurchquestion，andthereforeinactive。

Theopponentsofthebill，thoughoutweighedinthegreatmanufacturingtowns，suchasSalfordandStockport，andableinothers，suchasManchester，toattackcertainofitspointsonly，forfearoftheworking-men，collectedneverthelessnearlytwomillionsignaturesforapetitionagainstit，andGrahamallowedhimselftobesofarintimidatedastowithdrawthewholebill。Thenextyearheomittedtheschoolclauses，andproposedthat，insteadofthepreviousprovisions，childrenbetweeneightandthirteenyearsshouldberestrictedtosixandone-halfhours，andsoemployedastohaveeitherthewholemorningorthewholeafternoonfree；thatyoungpeoplebetweenthirteenandeighteenyears，andallfemales，shouldbelimitedtotwelvehours；andthatthehithertofrequentevasionsofthelawshouldbeprevented。

Hardlyhadheproposedthisbill，whenthetenhours’agitationwasbegunagainmorevigorouslythanever。Oastlerhadjustthenregainedhisliberty；

anumberofhisfriendsandacollectionamongtheworkershadpaidhisdebt，andhethrewhimselfintothemovementwithallhismight。ThedefendersoftheTenHours’BillintheHouseofCommonshadincreasedinnumbers，themassesofpetitionssupportingitwhichpouredinfromallsidesbroughtthemallies，andonMarch19th，1844，LordAshleycarried，withamajorityof179to170，aresolutionthattheword”Night”intheFactoryActshouldexpressthetimefromsixatnighttosixinthemorning，wherebytheprohibitionofnight-workcametomeanthelimitationofworking-hourstotwelve，includingfreehours，ortenhoursofactualworkaday。ButtheMinistrydidnotagreetothis。SirJamesGrahambegantothreatenresignationfromtheCabinet，andatthenextvoteonthebilltheHouserejectedbyasmallmajoritybothtenandtwelvehours。GrahamandPeelnowannouncedthattheyshouldintroduceanewbill，andthatifthisfailedtopasstheyshouldresign。ThenewbillwasexactlytheoldTwelveHours’Billwithsomechangesofform，andthesameHouseofCommonswhichhadrejectedtheprincipalpointsofthisbillinMarch，nowswalloweditwhole。ThereasonofthiswasthatmostofthesupportersoftheTenHours’BillwereTorieswholetfallthebillratherthantheMinistry；butbethemotiveswhattheymay，theHouseofCommonsbyitsvotesuponthissubject，eachvotereversingthelast，hasbroughtitselfintothegreatestcontemptamongalltheworkers，andprovedmostbrilliantlytheChartists’assertionofthenecessityofitsreform。Threemembers，whohadformerlyvotedagainsttheMinistry，afterwardsvotedforitandrescuedit。Inallthedivisions，thebulkoftheoppositionvotedforandthebulkofitsownpartyagainsttheMinistry。TheforegoingpropositionsofGrahamtouchingtheemploymentofchildrensixandone-halfandofallotheroperativestwelvehours’arenowlegislativeprovisions，andbythemandbythelimitationofoverworkformakinguptimelostthroughbreakdownofmachineryorinsufficientwater-powerbyreasonoffrostordrought，aworking-dayofmorethantwelvehourshasbeenmadewell-nighimpossible。Thereremains，however，nodoubtthat，inaveryshorttime，theTenHours’Billwillreallybeadopted。

Themanufacturersarenaturallyallagainstit；thereareperhapsnottenwhoareforit；theyhaveusedeveryhonourableanddishonourablemeansagainstthisdreadedmeasure，butwithnootherresultthanthatofdrawingdownuponthemtheever-deepeninghatredoftheworking-men。Thebillwillpass。Whattheworking-menwilldotheycando，andthattheywillhavethisbilltheyprovedlastspring。TheeconomicargumentsofthemanufacturersthataTenHours’BillwouldincreasethecostofproductionandincapacitatetheEnglishproducersforcompetitioninforeignmarkets，andthatwagesmustfall，areallhalftrue；buttheyprovenothingexceptthis，thattheindustrialgreatnessofEnglandcanbemaintainedonlythroughthebarbaroustreatmentoftheoperatives，thedestructionoftheirhealth，thesocial，physical，andmentaldecayofwholegenerations。Naturally，iftheTenHours’Billwereafinalmeasure，itmustruinEngland；butsinceitmustinevitablybringwithitothermeasureswhichmustdrawEnglandintoapathwhollydifferentfromthathithertofollowed，itcanonlyproveanadvance。

Letusturntoanothersideofthefactorysystemwhichcannotberemediedbylegislativeprovisionssoeasilyasthediseasesnowengenderedbyit。

Wehavealreadyalludedinageneralwaytothenatureoftheemployment，andenoughindetailtobeabletodrawcertaininferencesfromthefactsgiven。Thesupervisionofmachinery，thejoiningofbrokenthreads，isnoactivitywhichclaimstheoperative’sthinkingpowers，yetitisofasortwhichpreventshimfromoccupyinghismindwithotherthings。Wehaveseen，too，thatthisworkaffordsthemusclesnoopportunityforphysicalactivity。Thusitis，properlyspeaking，notwork，buttedium，themostdeadening，wearingprocessconceivable。Theoperativeiscondemnedtolethisphysicalandmentalpowersdecayinthisuttermonotony，itishismissiontobeboredeverydayandalldaylongfromhiseighthyear。Moreover，hemustnottakeamoment’srest；theenginemovesunceasingly；thewheels，thestraps，thespindleshumandrattleinhisearswithoutapause，andifhetriestosnatchoneinstant，thereistheoverlookerathisbackwiththebookoffines。Thiscondemnationtobeburiedaliveinthemill，togiveconstantattentiontothetirelessmachineisfeltasthekeenesttorturebytheoperatives，anditsactionuponmindandbodyisinthelongrunstuntinginthehighestdegree。Thereisnobettermeansofinducingstupefactionthanaperiodoffactory-work，andiftheoperativeshave，nevertheless，notonlyrescuedtheirintelligence，butcultivatedandsharpeneditmorethanotherworking-men，theyhavefoundthispossibleonlyinrebellionagainsttheirfateandagainstthebourgeoisie，thesolesubjectonwhichunderallcircumstancestheycanthinkandfeelwhileatwork。Or，ifthisindignationagainstthebourgeoisiedoesnotbecomethesupremepassionoftheworking-man，theinevitableconsequenceisdrunkennessandallthatisgenerallycalleddemoralisation。Thephysicalenervationandthesickness，universalinconsequenceofthefactorysystem，wereenoughtoinduceCommissionerHawkinstoattributethisdemoralisationtheretoasinevitable；howmuchmorewhenmentallassitudeisaddedtothem，andwhentheinfluencesalreadymentionedwhichtempteveryworking-mantodemoralisation，makethemselvesfeltheretoo！Thereisnocauseforsurprise，therefore，thatinthemanufacturingtownsespecially，drunkennessandsexualexcesseshavereachedthepitchwhichIhavealreadydescribed。[12]

Further，theslaveryinwhichthebourgeoisieholdstheproletariatchained，isnowheremoreconspicuousthaninthefactorysystem。Hereendsallfreedominlawandinfact。Theoperativemustbeinthemillathalf-pastfiveinthemorning；ifhecomesacoupleofminutestoolate，heisfined；

ifhecomestenminutestoolate，heisnotletinuntilbreakfastisover，andaquarteroftheday’swagesiswithheld，thoughhelosesonlytwoandone-halfhours’workoutoftwelve。Hemusteat，drink，andsleepatcommand。Forsatisfyingthemostimperativeneeds，heisvouchsafedtheleastpossibletimeabsolutelyrequiredbythem。Whetherhisdwellingisahalf-hourorawholeoneremovedfromthefactorydoesnotconcernhisemployer。Thedespoticbellcallshimfromhisbed，hisbreakfast，hisdinner。

Whatatimehehasofit，too，insidethefactory！Heretheemployerisabsolutelaw-giver；hemakesregulationsatwill，changesandaddstohiscodexatpleasure，andeven，ifheinsertsthecrazieststuff，thecourtssaytotheworking-man:”Youwereyourownmaster，nooneforcedyoutoagreetosuchacontractifyoudidnotwishto；butnow，whenyouhavefreelyenteredintoit，youmustbeboundbyit。”Andsotheworking-manonlygetsintothebargainthemockeryoftheJusticeofthePeacewhoisabourgeoishimself，andofthelawwhichismadebythebourgeoisie。Suchdecisionshavebeengivenoftenenough。InOctober，1844，theoperativesofKennedy’smill，inManchester，struck。Kennedyprosecutedthemonthestrengthofaregulationplacardedinthemill，thatatnotimemorethantwooperativesinoneroommayquitworkatonce。

Andthecourtdecidedinhisfavour，givingtheworking-mentheexplanationcitedabove。Andsuchrulesastheseusuallyare！Forinstance:1。Thedoorsareclosedtenminutesafterworkbegins，andthereafternooneisadmitteduntilthebreakfasthour；whoeverisabsentduringthistimeforfeits3d。perloom。2。Everypower-loomweaverdetectedabsentinghimselfatanothertime，whilethemachineryisinmotion，forfeitsforeachhourandeachloom，3d。Everypersonwholeavestheroomduringworking-hours，withoutobtainingpermissionfromtheoverlooker，forfeits3d。5。Weaverswhofailtosupplythemselveswithscissorsforfeit，perday，1d。4。Allbrokenshuttles，brushes，oil-cans，wheels，window-panes，etc。，mustbepaidforbytheweaver。5。Noweavertostopworkwithoutgivingaweek’snotice。Themanufacturermaydismissanyemployeewithoutnoticeforbadworkorimproperbehaviour。6。Everyoperativedetectedspeakingtoanother，singingorwhistling，willbefined6d。；forleavinghisplaceduringworking-hours，6d。Anothercopyoffactoryregulationsliesbeforeme，accordingtowhicheveryoperativewhocomesthreeminutestoolate，forfeitsthewagesforaquarterofanhour，andeveryonewhocomestwentyminutestoolate，foraquarterofaday。EveryonewhoremainsabsentuntilbreakfastforfeitsashillingonMonday，andsixpenceeveryotherdayoftheweek，etc。，etc。

ThislastistheregulationofthePhoenixWorksinJerseyStreet，Manchester。

Itmaybesaidthatsuchrulesarenecessaryinagreat，complicatedfactory，inordertoinsuretheharmoniousworkingofthedifferentparts；itmaybeassertedthatsuchaseveredisciplineisasnecessaryhereasinanarmy。Thismaybeso，butwhatsortofasocialorderisitwhichcannotbemaintainedwithoutsuchshamefultyranny？Eithertheendsanctifiesthemeans，ortheinferenceofthebadnessoftheendfromthebadnessofthemeansisjustified。Everyonewhohasservedasasoldierknowswhatitistobesubjectedevenforashorttimetomilitarydiscipline。

Buttheseoperativesarecondemnedfromtheirninthyeartotheirdeathtoliveunderthesword，physicallyandmentally。TheyareworseslavesthantheNegroesinAmerica，fortheyaremoresharplywatched，andyetitisdemandedofthemthattheyshalllivelikehumanbeings，shallthinkandfeellikemen！Verily，thistheycandoonlyunderglowinghatredtowardstheiroppressors，andtowardsthatorderofthingswhichplacestheminsuchaposition，whichdegradesthemtomachines。Butitisfarmoreshamefulyet，thataccordingtotheuniversaltestimonyoftheoperatives，numbersofmanufacturerscollectthefinesimposedupontheoperativeswiththemostheartlessseverity，andforthepurposeofpilingupextraprofitsoutofthefarthingsthusextortedfromtheimpoverishedproletarians。

Leachasserts，too，thattheoperativesoftenfindthefactoryclockmovedforwardaquarterofanhourandthedoorsshut，whiletheclerkmovesaboutwiththefines-bookinside，notingthemanynamesoftheabsentees。

Leachclaimstohavecountedninety-fiveoperativesthusshutout，standingbeforeafactory，whoseclockwasaquarterofanhourslowerthanthetownclocksatnight，andaquarterofanhourfasterinthemorning。TheFactoryReportrelatessimilarfacts。Inonefactorytheclockwassetbackduringworking-hours，sothattheoperativesworkedovertimewithoutextrapay；inanother，awholequarterofanhourovertimewasworked；

inathird，thereweretwoclocks，anordinaryoneandamachineclock，whichregisteredtherevolutionsofthemainshaft；ifthemachinerywentslowly，working-hoursweremeasuredbythemachineclockuntilthenumberofrevolutionsdueintwelvehourswasreached；ifworkwentwell，sothatthenumberwasreachedbeforetheusualworking-hourswereended，theoperativeswereforcedtotoilontotheendofthetwelfthhour。Thewitnessaddsthathehadknowngirlswhohadgoodwork，andwhohadworkedovertime，who，nevertheless，betookthemselvestoalifeofprostitutionratherthansubmittothistyranny。Toreturntothefines，Leachrelateshavingrepeatedlyseenwomeninthelastperiodofpregnancyfined6d。fortheoffenceofsittingdownamomenttorest。Finesforbadworkarewhollyarbitrary；

thegoodsareexaminedinthewareroom，andthesupervisorchargesthefinesuponalistwithoutevensummoningtheoperative，whoonlylearnsthathehasbeenfinedwhentheoverlookerpayshiswages，andthegoodshaveperhapsbeensold，orcertainlybeenplacedbeyondhisreach。Leachhasinhispossessionsuchafineslist，tenfeetlong，andamountingto£；3517s。10d。Herelatesthatinthefactorywherethislistwasmade，anewsupervisorwasdismissedforfiningtoolittle，andsobringinginfivepoundstoolittleweekly。AndIrepeatthatIknowLeachtobeathoroughlytrustworthymanincapableofafalsehood。

Buttheoperativeishisemployer’sslaveinstillotherrespects。Ifhiswifeordaughterfindsfavourintheeyesofthemaster，acommand，ahintsuffices，andshemustplaceherselfathisdisposal。Whentheemployerwishestosupplywithsignaturesapetitioninfavourofbourgeoisinterests，heneedonlysendittohismill。IfhewishestodecideaParliamentaryelection，hesendshisenfranchisedoperativesinrankandfiletothepolls，andtheyvoteforthebourgeoiscandidatewhethertheywillorno。

Ifhedesiresamajorityinapublicmeeting，hedismissesthemhalf-an-

hourearlierthanusual，andsecuresthemplacesclosetotheplatform，wherehecanwatchthemtohissatisfaction。

Twofurtherarrangementscontributeespeciallytoforcetheoperativeunderthedominionofthemanufacturer；theTrucksystemandtheCottagesystem。Thetrucksystem，thepaymentoftheoperativesingoods，wasformerlyuniversalinEngland。Themanufactureropensashop，”fortheconvenienceoftheoperatives，andtoprotectthemfromthehighpricesofthepettydealers”。Heregoodsofallsortsaresoldtothemoncredit，andtokeeptheoperativesfromgoingtotheshopswheretheycouldgettheirgoodsmorecheaply——the”Tommyshops”usuallychargingtwenty-fivetothirtypercentmorethanothers——wagesarepaidinrequisitionsontheshopinsteadofmoney。ThegeneralindignationagainstthisinfamoussystemledtothepassageoftheTruckActin1831，bywhich，formostemployees，paymentintruckorderswasdeclaredvoidandillegal，andwasmadepunishablebyfine；but，likemostotherEnglishlaws，thishasbeenenforcedonlyhereandthere。Inthetownsitiscarriedoutcomparativelyefficiently；

butinthecountry，thetrucksystem，disguisedorundisguised，flourishes。

InthetownofLeicester，too，itisverycommon。Thereliebeforemenearlyadozenconvictionsforthisoffence，datingfromtheperiodbetweenNovember，1843，andJune，1844，andreported，inpart，intheManchesterGuardianand，inpart，intheNorthernStar。Thesystemis，ofcourse，lessopenlycarriedonatpresent；wagesareusuallypaidincash，buttheemployerstillhasmeansenoughatcommandtoforcehimtopurchasehiswaresinthetruckshopandnowhereelse。Henceitisdifficulttocombatthetrucksystem，becauseitcannowbecarriedonundercoverofthelaw，providedonlythattheoperativereceiveshiswagesinmoney。TheNorthernStarofApril27th，1844，publishesaletterfromanoperativeofHolmfirth，nearHuddersfield，inYorkshire，whichreferstoamanufacturerofthenameofBowers，asfollows:”ItisalmoststraingetoseethattheaccursedtrucksistimshouldexisttotheenormoustextentthatitdoseinHolmfirth，andnoonetobefoundtohavethemoralcouragetoattempttoputastoptoit。

Thaireareagreatemanyhonesthandloomeweaversthatissufferingbythataccursedsistim。Thisisonespecimen。Outofthemanyofthatpreciousfreetraidcrew，thaireisonemanufacturerthatasthecurseofthewholeneighbourhooduponim，forisbasenesstowardsisweavers。Whentheyfinnishawarp，whichcomesto£；114s，or£；116s，hegivesthem£；l，andtherestingoods，wearingapparel，at40or50persentdearerthenattheregularshopkeeppers，andmanyatimethegoodsarerotton。ButastheFree-TradeMercurysaysbythefactorylabour，’theyarenotboundtotakeit；itsquiteoptional’。0，yes；butthaymusteathertakeitorstarve。Ifthaywhantanymorethanthe£；1osad，thaymustwaitofawarpaweekorafortnight；butifthaytakethe£；1，osodandthegoods，thaireisalwaysawarpforthem。Thisisfreetraidism。LordBroughamsays’weshouldlaysomethingbyinouryoungdays，thatwemaybeindependentinouroldageofparochialrelief。Mustwelaybytheserottongoods？Ifthisdidnotcomefromalord，thaywouldthinkisbrainswearasrottonasthegoodsweegotforourlabour。WhentheunstamptnewspaperswearincirculationthairewearnolackofinformersinHolmfirth。ThaireweartheBlyths，theEstwoods，&；，butweararetheynow？0，butthisisquitedifferent。Ourtrucksterisoneofthefreetradingpiouscrew。

HegoestothechurchtwiseeverySunday，andrepeatsaftertheparsonveryfervently:’wehaveleftundonethosethingswichwehoughttohavedone；wehavedonethosethingswichwehoughtnottohavedone；andthaireisnohelpinus；butspareus，goodLord。’”-Yes，spareuswilemorning，andwewillpayourweaverswagesinrottongoodsagain。”TheCottagesystemlooksmuchmoreinnocentandaroseinamuchmoreharmlessway，thoughithasthesameenslavinginfluenceupontheemployee。Intheneighbourhoodofthemillsinthecountry，thereisoftenalackofdwellingaccommodationfortheoperatives。Themanufacturerisfrequentlyobligedtobuildsuchdwellingsanddoessogladly，astheyyieldgreatadvantages，besidestheinterestuponthecapitalinvested。Ifanyownerofworking-men’sdwellingsaveragesaboutsixpercentonhisinvestedcapital，itissafetocalculatethatthemanufacturer’scottagesyieldtwicethisrate；forsolongashisfactorydoesnotstandperfectlyidleheissureofoccupants，andofoccupantswhopaypunctually。Heisthereforesparedthetwochiefdisadvantagesunderwhichotherhouse-ownerslabour；hiscottagesneverstandempty，andherunsnorisk。Buttherentofthecottagesisashighasthoughthesedisadvantageswereinfullforce，andbyobtainingthesamerentastheordinaryhouse-owner，themanufacturer，atcostoftheoperatives，makesabrilliantinvestmentattwelvetofourteenpercent。

Foritisclearlyunjustthatheshouldmaketwiceasmuchprofitasothercompetinghouse-owners，whoatthesametimeareexcludedfromcompetingwithhim。Butitimpliesadoublewrong，whenhedrawshisfixedprofitfromthepocketsofthenon-possessingclass，whichmustconsidertheexpenditureofeverypenny。Heisusedtothat，however，hewhosewholewealthisgainedatthecostofhisemployees。Butthisinjusticebecomesaninfamywhenthemanufacturer，asoftenhappens，forceshisoperatives，whomustoccupyhishousesonpainofdismissal，topayahigherrentthantheordinaryone，oreventopayrentforhousesinwhichtheydonotlive！TheHalifaxGuardian，quotedbytheLiberalSun，assertsthathundredsofoperativesinAshton-under-Lyne，Oldham，andRochdale，etc。，areforcedbytheiremployerstopayhouse-rentwhethertheyoccupythehouseornot。

Thecottagesystemisuniversalinthecountrydistricts；ithascreatedwholevillages，andthemanufacturerusuallyhaslittleornocompetitionagainsthishouses，sothathecanfixhispriceregardlessofanymarketrate，indeedathispleasure。Andwhatpowerdoesthecottagesystemgivetheemployeroverhisoperativesindisagreementsbetweenmasterandmen？

Ifthelatterstrike，heneedonlygivethemnoticetoquithispremises，andthenoticeneedonlybeaweek；afterthattimetheoperativeisnotonlywithoutbreadbutwithoutashelter，avagabondatthemercyofthelawwhichsendshim，withoutfail，tothetreadmill。

Suchisthefactorysystemsketchedasfullyasmyspacepermits，andwithaslittlepartisanspiritastheheroicdeedsofthebourgeoisieagainstthedefencelessworkerspermit——deedstowardswhichitisimpossibletoremainindifferent，towardswhichindifferencewereacrime。LetuscomparetheconditionofthefreeEnglishmanof1845withtheSaxonserfunderthelashoftheNormanbaronsof1145。Theserfwasglebaeadscriptus，boundtothesoil，soisthefreeworking-manthroughthecottagesystem。

Theserfowedhismasterthejusprimaenoctis，therightofthefirstnight——thefreeworking-manmust，ondemand，surrendertohismasternotonlythat，buttherightofeverynight。Theserfcouldacquirenoproperty；everythingthathegained，hismastercouldtakefromhim；

thefreeworking-manhasnoproperty，cangainnonebyreasonofthepressureofcompetition，andwhateventheNormanbarondidnotdo，themodernmanufacturerdoes。Throughthetrucksystem，heassumeseverydaytheadministrationindetailofthethingswhichtheworkerrequiresforhisimmediatenecessities。

Therelationofthelordofthesoiltotheserfwasregulatedbytheprevailingcustomsandbylawswhichwereobeyed，becausetheycorrespondedtothem。

Thefreeworking-man’srelationtohismasterisregulatedbylawswhicharenotobeyed，becausetheycorrespondneitherwiththeinterestsoftheemployernorwiththeprevailingcustoms。Thelordofthesoilcouldnotseparatetheserffromtheland，norsellhimapartfromit，andsincealmostallthelandwasfiefandtherewasnocapital，practicallycouldnotsellhimatall。Themodernbourgeoisforcestheworking-mantosellhimself。Theserfwastheslaveofthepieceoflandonwhichhewasborn，theworking-manistheslaveofhisownnecessariesoflifeandofthemoneywithwhichhehastobuythem——bothareslavesofathing。

Theserfhadaguaranteeforthemeansofsubsistenceinthefeudalorderofsocietyinwhicheverymemberhadhisownplace。Thefreeworking-manhasnoguaranteewhatsoever，becausehehasaplaceinsocietyonlywhenthebourgeoisiecanmakeuseofhim；inallothercasesheisignored，treatedasnon-existent。Theserfsacrificedhimselfforhismasterinwar，thefactoryoperativeinpeace。Thelordoftheserfwasabarbarianwhoregardedhisvillainasaheadofcattle；theemployerofoperativesiscivilisedandregardshis”hand”asamachine。Inshort，thepositionofthetwoisnotfarfromequal，andifeitherisatadisadvantage，itisthefreeworking-man。Slavestheybothare，withthesingledifferencethattheslaveryoftheoneisundissembled，open，honest；thatoftheothercunning，sly，disguised，deceitfullyconcealedfromhimselfandeveryoneelse，ahypocriticalservitudeworsethantheold。ThephilanthropicTorieswererightwhentheygavetheoperativesthenamewhiteslaves。

Butthehypocriticaldisguisedslaveryrecognisestherighttofreedom，atleastinoutwardform；bowsbeforeafreedom-lovingpublicopinion，andhereinliesthehistoricprogressascomparedwiththeoldservitude，thattheprincipleoffreedomisaffirmed，andtheoppressedwillonedayseetoitthatthisprincipleiscarriedout。

Atthecloseafewstanzasofapoemwhichvoicesthesentimentsoftheworkersthemselvesaboutthefactorysystem。WrittenbyEdwardP。MeadofBirmingham，itisacorrectexpressionoftheviewsprevailingamongthem。ThereisaKing，andaruthlessKing；NotaKingofthepoet’sdream；Butatyrantfell，whiteslavesknowwell，AndthatruthlessKingisSteam。Hehathanarm，anironarm，Andtho’hehathbutone，Inthatmightyarmthereisacharm，Thatmillionshathundone。LiketheancientMolochgrim，hissireInHimmon’svalethatstood，Hisbowelsareoflivingfire，Andchildrenarehisfood。Hispriesthoodareahungryband，Blood-thirsty，proud，andbold；’Tistheydirecthisgianthand，Inturningbloodtogold。ForfilthygainintheirservilechainAllnature’srightstheybind；Theymockatlovelywoman’spain，Andtomanlytearsareblind。ThesighsandgroansofLabour’ssonsAremusicintheirear，Andtheskeletonshades，ofladsandmaids，IntheSteamKing’shellappear。Thosehellsuponearth，sincetheSteamKing’sbirth，Havescatter’darounddespair；ForthehumanmindforHeav’ndesign’d，Withthebody，ismurderedthere。ThendownwiththeKing，theMolochKing，Yeworkingmillionsall；Ochainhishand，orournativelandIsdestin’dbyhimtofall。AndhisSatrapsabhor’d，eachproudMillLord，Nowgorg’dwithgoldandblood，Mustbeputdownbythenation’sfrown，AswellastheirmonsterGod。Ihaveneithertimenoraparttodealindetailwiththerepliesofthemanufacturerstothechargesmadeagainstthemfortwelveyearspast。Thesemenwillnotlearnbecausetheirsupposedinterestblindsthem。As，moreover，manyoftheirobjectionshavebeenmetintheforegoing，thefollowingisallthatitisnecessaryformetoadd:

YoucometoManchester，youwishtomakeyourselfacquaintedwiththestateofaffairsinEngland。Younaturallyhavegoodintroductionstorespectablepeople。Youdroparemarkortwoastotheconditionoftheworkers。YouaremadeacquaintedwithacoupleofthefirstLiberalmanufacturers，RobertHydeGreg，perhaps，EdmundAshworth，ThomasAshton，orothers。Theyaretoldofyourwishes。Themanufacturerunderstandsyou，knowswhathehastodo。Heaccompaniesyoutohisfactoryinthecountry；Mr。GregtoQuarrybankinCheshire，Mr。AshworthtoTurtonnearBolton，Mr。AshtontoHyde。Heleadsyouthroughasuperb，admirablyarrangedbuilding，perhapssuppliedwithventilators，hecallsyourattentiontothelofty，airyrooms，thefinemachinery，hereandthereahealthy-lookingoperative。Hegivesyouanexcellentlunch，andproposestoyoutovisittheoperatives’homes；

heconductsyoutothecottages，whichlooknew，cleanandneat，andgoeswithyouintothisoneandthatone，naturallyonlytooverlookers，mechanics，etc。，sothatyoumaysee-”familieswholivewhollyfromthefactory”。

Amongotherfamiliesyoumightfindthatonlywifeandchildrenwork，andthehusbanddarnsstockings。Thepresenceoftheemployerkeepsyoufromaskingindiscreetquestions；youfindeveryonewell-paid，comfortable，comparativelyhealthybyreasonofthecountryair；youbegintobeconvertedfromyourexaggeratedideasofmiseryandstarvation。But，thatthecottagesystemmakesslavesoftheoperatives，thattheremaybeatruckshopintheneighbourhood，thatthepeoplehatethemanufacturer，thistheydonotpointouttoyou，becauseheispresent。Hehasbuiltaschool，church，reading-room，etc。Thatheusestheschooltotrainchildrentosubordination，thathetoleratesinthereading-roomsuchprintsonlyasrepresenttheinterestsofthebourgeoisie，thathedismisseshisemployeesiftheyreadChartistorSocialistpapersorbooks，thisisallconcealedfromyou。

Youseeaneasy，patriarchalrelation，youseethelifeoftheoverlookers，youseewhatthebourgeoisiepromisestheworkersiftheybecomeitsslaves，mentallyandmorally。This”countrymanufacture”hasalwaysbeenwhattheemployersliketoshow，becauseinitthedisadvantagesofthefactorysystem，especiallyfromthepointofviewofhealth，are，inpart，doneawaywithbythefreeairandsurroundings，andbecausethepatriarchalservitudeoftheworkerscanherebelongestmaintained。Dr。Uresingsadithyrambuponthetheme。ButwoetotheoperativestowhomitoccurstothinkforthemselvesandbecomeChartists！Forthemthepaternalaffectionofthemanufacturercomestoasuddenend。Further，ifyoushouldwishtobeaccompaniedthroughtheworking-people’squartersofManchester，ifyoushoulddesiretoseethedevelopmentofthefactorysysteminafactorytown，youmaywaitlongbeforetheserichbourgeoisiewillhelpyou！Thesegentlemendonotknowinwhatconditiontheiremployeesarenorwhattheywant，andtheydarenotknowthingswhichwouldmakethemuneasyorevenobligethemtoactinoppositiontotheirowninterests。

But，fortunately，thatisofnoconsequence:whattheworking-menhavetocarryout，theycarryoutforthemselves——NotebyEngels。

NOTES

1。TheCottonManufactureofGreatBritain，byDr。A。Ure，1856——NotebyEngels。[1]

2。HistoryoftheCottonManufactureofGreatBritainbyE。Baines，Esq——NotebyEngels。[2]

3。StubbornFactsfromtheFactoriesbyaManchesterOperative。Publishedanddedicatedtotheworking-classes。byWm。Rashleigh，M。P。，London，Ollivier，1844。p。28，etseq——NotebyEngels。[3]

4。CompareFactories’InquiryCommission’sReport——NotebyEngelstotheAmericaneditionof1887。[4]

5。ThisisthequestionposedbyJ。C。Symons，inArtsandArtisans——NotebyEngels。[5]

7。ReportofFactoryInspector，L。Horner。October，1845:”ThereisatpresentaveryanomalousstateofthingsinregardtowagesinsomedepartmentsofcottonmillsinLancashire；fortherearehundredsofyoungmen，between20and30yearsofage，employedaspiecersandotherwise，whoarereceivingnotmorethaneightornineshillingsaweek；whileunderthesameroof，childrenof13yearsofagearegettingfiveshillings，andyoungwomenbetween16and20aregettingfromtentotwelveshillingsaweek。”——NotebyEngels。[7]

8。ReportofFactories’InquiryCommission。TestimonyofDr。Hawkins，p。3——NotebyEngelstotheAmericaneditionof1887。[8]

9。In1842，amongtheaccidentsbroughttotheInfirmaryinManchester，onehundredandeighty-ninewerefromburning。Howmanywerefatalisnotstated。NotebyEngels。[9]

10。Hownumerousmarriedwomenareinthefactoriesisseenfrominformationfurnishedbyamanufacturer。In412factoriesinLancashire，10，721ofthemwereemployed；ofthehusbandsofthesewomen，but5，314werealsoemployedinthefactories，3。927wereotherwiseemployed，821wereunemployed，andinformationwaswantingasto659；ortwo，ifnotthreemenforeachfactory，aresupportedbytheworkoftheirwives——

NotebyEngels。[10]。

11。ThesurgeonsinEnglandarescientificallyeducatedaswellasthephysiciansandhave，ingeneral，medicalaswellassurgicalpractice。Theyare，ingeneral，forvariousreasons，preferredtothephysicians——

NotebyEngels。[11]。

12。Letushearanothercompetentjudge:”Whenthisexample[i。e。，oftheIrish]isconsideredinconnexionwiththeunremittedlabourofthewholepopulationengagedinthevariousbranchesofthecottonmanufacture，ourwonderwillbelessexcitedbytheirfataldemoralisation。

Prolongedandexhaustinglabour，continuedfromdaytoday，andfromyeartoyear，isnotcalculatedtodeveloptheintellectualormoralfacultiesofman。Thedullroutineofaceaselessdrudgery，inwhichthesamemechanicalprocessisincessantlyrepeated，resemblesthetormentofSisyphus——thetoil，liketherock，recoilsperpetuallyontheweariedoperative。Themindgathersneitherstoresnorstrengthfromtheconstantextensionandretractionofthesamemuscles。Theintellectslumbersinsupineinertness；

butthegrosserpartsofournatureattainarankdevelopment。Tocondemnmantosuchseverityoftoilis，insomemeasure，tocultivateinhimthehabitsofananimal。Hebecomesreckless。Hedisregardsthedistinguishingappetitesandhabitsofhisspecies。Heneglectsthecomfortsanddelicaciesoflife。Helivesinsqualidwretchedness，onmeagrefood，andexpoundshissuperfluousgainsindebauchery。”——Dr。J。Kay——NotebyEngels。[12]。TheremainingbranchesofindustryF。EngelsTHECONDITIONS

OFTHEWORKING-CLASS

INENGLANDTHEREMAININGBRANCHESOFINDUSTRY

Wewerecompelledtodealwiththefactorysystemsomewhatatlength，asitisanentirelynovelcreationoftheindustrialperiod；weshallbeabletotreattheotherworkersthemorebriefly，becausewhathasbeensaideitheroftheindustrialproletariatingeneral，orofthefactorysysteminparticular，willwholly，orinpart，applytothem。Weshall，therefore，merelyhavetorecordhowfarthefactorysystemhassucceededinforcingitswayintoeachbranchofindustry，andwhatotherpeculiaritiesthesemayreveal。

ThefourbranchescomprisedundertheFactoryActareengagedintheproductionofclothingstuffs。Weshalldobestifwedealnextwiththoseworkerswhoreceivetheirmaterialsfromthesefactories；and，firstofall，withthestockingweaversofNottingham，Derby，andLeicester。Touchingtheseworkers，theChildren’sEmploymentCommissionreportsthatthelongworking-hours，imposedbylowwages，withasedentarylifeandthestrainupontheeyesinvolvedinthenatureoftheemployment，usuallyenfeeblethewholeframe，andespeciallytheeyes。Workatnightisimpossiblewithoutaverypowerfullightproducedbyconcentratingtheraysofthelamp，makingthempassthroughglassglobes，whichismostinjurioustothesight。Atfortyyearsofage，nearlyallwearspectacles。Thechildrenemployedatspoolingandhemmingusuallysuffergraveinjuriestothehealthandconstitution。

Theyworkfromthesixth，seventh，oreighthyeartentotwelvehoursdailyinsmall，closerooms。Itisnotuncommonforthemtofaintattheirwork，tobecometoofeebleforthemostordinaryhouseholdoccupation，andsonear-sightedastobeobligedtowearglassesduringchildhood。Manywerefoundbythecommissionerstoexhibitallthesymptomsofascrofulousconstitution，andthemanufacturersusuallyrefusetoemploygirlswhohaveworkedinthiswayasbeingtooweak。Theconditionofthesechildrenischaracterisedas”adisgracetoaChristiancountry”，andthewishexpressedforlegislativeinterference。TheFactoryReportaddsthatthestockingweaversaretheworstpaidworkersinLeicester，earningsix，orwithgreateffort，sevenshillingsaweek，forsixteentoeighteenhours’dailywork。

Formerlytheyearnedtwentytotwenty-oneshillings，buttheintroductionofenlargedframeshasruinedtheirbusiness；thegreatmajoritystillworkwithold，small，singleframes，andcompetewithdifficultywiththeprogressofmachinery。Here，too，everyprogressisadisadvantagefortheworkers。Nevertheless，CommissionerPowerspeaksoftheprideofthestockingweaversthattheyarefree，andhavenofactorybelltomeasureoutthetimefortheireating，sleeping，andworking。Theirpositiontodayisnobetterthanin1833，whentheFactoryCommissionmadetheforegoingstatements；thecompetitionoftheSaxonstockingweavers，whohavescarcelyanythingtoeat，takescareofthat。ThiscompetitionistoostrongfortheEnglishinnearlyallforeignmarkets，andforthelowerqualitiesofgoodsevenintheEnglishmarket。ItmustbeasourceofrejoicingforthepatrioticGermanstockingweaverthathisstarvationwagesforcehisEnglishbrothertostarvetoo！And，verily，willhenotstarveon，proudandhappy，forthegreatergloryofGermanindustry，sincethehonouroftheFatherlanddemandsthathistableshouldbebare，hisdishhalf-empty？

Ah！itisanoblethingthiscompetition，this”raceofthenations”。IntheMorningChronicle，anotherLiberalsheet，theorganofthebourgeoisieparexcellence，therewerepublishedsomelettersfromastockingweaverinHinckley，describingtheconditionofhisfellow-workers。Amongotherthings，hereports50families，321persons，whoweresupportedby109

frames；eachframeyieldedonanaverage51/2，shillings；eachfamilyearnedanaverageof11s。4d。weekly。Outofthistherewasrequiredforhouserent，framerent，fuel，light，soap，andneedles，together5s。10d。，sothatthereremainedforfood，perheaddaily，11/2d。，andforclothingnothing。”Eyehathnotseen，”saysthestockingweaver，”earhathnotheard，theheartcannotconceivethehalfofthesufferingenduredbythispoverty-strickenpeople。”Bedswerewantingeitherwhollyorinpart，thechildrenranaboutraggedandbarefoot；themensaid，withtearsintheireyes:”Wenevertastedmeatthismanyaday”——”Wehavealmostforgottenitstaste”；and，finally，someofthemworkedonSunday，thoughpublicopinionpardonsanythingelsemorereadilythanthis，andtherattlingnoiseoftheframeisaudiblethroughouttheneighbourhood。”Lookatmychildren，”saidoneofthem，”andasknomore。

Itisbecausemypovertycompelsme；Icannotandwillnothearmychildrencryforbreadwithouttakingtheonlymeanshonestlytogetit。LastMondaymorningIroseattwoo’clockandworkedtillnearmidnight。Iroseatsixo’clockeachsucceedingmorningandworkeduntilbetweenelevenandtwelveeachnight。Icannotdoitlonger。IshallgotoanuntimelygraveifIdo；Iwillthereforeendmylaboursatteno’clockeachnightandmakeupthetimelostbylabouringontheSunday。”NeitherinLeicester，Nottingham，norDerbyhavewagesrisensince1833；

andtheworstofitisthatinLeicesterthetrucksystemprevailstoagreatextent，asIhavementioned。Itis，therefore，nottobewonderedatthattheweaversofthisregiontakeaveryactivepartinallworking-men’smovements，themoreactiveandeffectivebecausetheframesareworkedchieflybymen。

Inthisstockingweavers’districtthelaceindustryalsohasitsheadquarters。

Inthethreecountiesmentionedthereareinall2，760laceframesinuse，whileinalltherestofEnglandtherearebut787。Themanufactureoflaceisgreatlycomplicatedbyarigiddivisionoflabour，andembracesamultitudeofbranches。Theyarnisfirstspooledbygirlsfourteenyearsofageandupwards，winders；thenthespoolsaresetupontheframesbyboys，eightyearsoldandupwards，threaders，whopassthethreadthroughfineopenings，ofwhicheachmachinehasanaverageof1，800，andbringittowardsitsdestination；thentheweaverweavesthelacewhichcomesoutofthemachinelikeabroadpieceofclothandistakenapartbyverylittlechildrenwhodrawouttheconnectingthreads。Thisiscalledrunningordrawinglace，andthechildrenthemselveslace-runners。Thelaceisthenmadereadyforsale。Thewinders，likethethreaders，havenospecifiedworking-time，beingcalleduponwheneverthespoolsonaframeareempty，andareliable，sincetheweaversworkatnight，toberequiredatanytimeinthefactoryorwork-room。Thisirregularity，thefrequentnight-work，thedisorderlywayoflivingconsequentuponit，engenderamultitudeofphysicalandmoralills，especiallyearlyandunbridledsexuallicence，uponwhichpointallwitnessesareunanimous。Theworkisverybadfortheeyes，andalthoughapermanentinjuryinthecaseofthethreadersisnotuniversallyobservable，inflammationsoftheeye，pain，tears，andmomentaryuncertaintyofvisionduringtheactofthreadingareengendered。

Forthewinders，however，itiscertainthattheirworkseriouslyaffectstheeye，andproduces，besidesthefrequentinflammationsofthecornea，manycasesofamaurosisandcataract。Theworkoftheweaversthemselvesisverydifficult，astheframeshaveconstantlybeenmadewider，untilthosenowinusearealmostallworkedbythreemeninturn，eachworkingeighthours，andtheframebeingkeptinusethewholetwenty-four。Henceitisthatthewindersandthreadersaresooftencalleduponduringthenight，andmustworktopreventtheframefromstandingidle。Thefillinginof1，800openingswiththreadoccupiesthreechildrenatleasttwohours。

Manyframesaremovedbysteam-power，andtheworkofmenthussuperseded；

and，astheChildren’sEmploymentCommission’sReportmentionsonlylacefactoriestowhichthechildrenaresummoned，itseemstofolloweitherthattheworkoftheweavershasbeenremovedtogreatfactoryroomsoflate，orthatsteam-weavinghasbecomeprettygeneral；aforwardmovementofthefactorysystemineithercase。Mostunwholesomeofallistheworkoftherunners，whoareusuallychildrenofseven，andevenoffiveandfour，yearsold。CommissionerGraingeractuallyfoundonechildoftwoyearsoldemployedatthiswork。Followingathreadwhichistobewithdrawnbyaneedlefromanintricatetexture，isverybadfortheeyes，especiallywhen，asisusuallythecase，theworkiscontinuedfourteentosixteenhours。Intheleastunfavourablecase，aggravatednear-sightednessfollows；

intheworstcase，whichisfrequentenough，incurableblindnessfromamaurosis。

But，apartfromthat，thechildren，inconsequenceofsittingperpetuallybentup，becomefeeble，narrow-chested，andscrofulousfrombaddigestion。

Disorderedfunctionsoftheuterusarealmostuniversalamongthegirls，andcurvatureofthespinealso，sothat”alltherunnersmayberecognisedfromtheirgait”。Thesameconsequencesfortheeyesandthewholeconstitutionareproducedbytheembroideryoflace。Medicalwitnessesareunanimouslyoftheopinionthatthehealthofallchildrenemployedintheproductionoflacesuffersseriously，thattheyarepale，weak，delicate，undersized，andmuchlessablethanotherchildrentoresistdisease。Theaffectionsfromwhichtheyusuallysufferaregeneraldebility，frequentfainting，painsinthehead，sides，back，andhips，palpitationoftheheart，nausea，vomitingandwantofappetite，curvatureofthespine，scrofula，andconsumption。

Thehealthofthefemalelace-makersespecially，isconstantlyanddeeplyundermined；complaintsareuniversalofanaemia，difficultchild-birth，andmiscarriage。ThesamesubordinateofficialoftheChildren’sEmploymentCommissionreportsfurtherthatthechildrenareveryoftenill-clothedandragged，andreceiveinsufficientfood，usuallyonlybreadandtea，oftennomeatformonthstogether。Astotheirmoralcondition，hereports:”InthetownofNottinghamallparties，police，clergy，manufacturers，work-people，andparentsofthechildrenagreethatthepresentsystemoflabourisamostfertilesourceofimmorality。Thethreaders，whoareusuallyboys，andthewinders，whoaregenerallygirls，arecalledoutoftheirparents’housesatallhoursofthenight，andasitisquiteuncertainhowlongtheymayberequired，areadyandunanswerableexcuseforstayingoutisfurnishedandtheyhaveeveryfacilityforformingimproperconnections。Thismusthavecontributed，innoslightdegree，totheimmoralitywhich，accordingtotheopinionuniversallyexpressed，prevailstoamostawfulextentinNottingham。Inadditiontotheimmediateevilstothechildrenthemselves，thedomesticpeaceandcomfortofthefamiliestowhichtheyaremembersaresacrificedtothismostunnaturalstateofthings。”Anotherbranchoflace-making，bobbin-lacework，iscarriedonintheagriculturalshiresofNorthampton，Oxford，andBedford，chieflybychildrenandyoungpersons，whocomplainuniversallyofbadfood，andrarelytastemeat。Theemploymentitselfismostunwholesome。Thechildrenworkinsmall，ill-ventilated，damprooms，sittingalwaysbentoverthelacecushion。Tosupportthebodyinthiswearyingposition，thegirlswearstayswithawoodenbusk，which，atthetenderageofmostofthem，whenthebonesarestillverysoft，whollydisplacetheribs，andmakenarrowchestsuniversal。Theyusuallydieofconsumptionaftersufferingtheseverestformsofdigestivedisorders，broughtonbysedentaryworkinabadatmosphere。Theyarealmostwhollywithouteducation，leastofalldotheyreceivemoraltraining。Theylovefinery，andinconsequenceofthesetwoinfluencestheirmoralconditionismostdeplorable，andprostitutionalmostepidemicamongthem。

Thisisthepriceatwhichsocietypurchasesforthefineladiesofthebourgeoisiethepleasureofwearinglace；areasonablepricetruly！

Onlyafewthousandblindworking-men，someconsumptivelabourers’daughters，asicklygenerationofthevilemultitudebequeathingitsdebilitytoitsequally”vile”childrenandchildren’schildren。Butwhatdoesthatcometo？Nothing，nothingwhatsoever！OurEnglishbourgeoisiewilllaythereportoftheGovernmentCommissionasideindifferently，andwivesanddaughterswilldeckthemselveswithlaceasbefore。Itisabeautifulthing，thecomposureofanEnglishbourgeois。

Agreatnumberofoperativesareemployedinthecotton-printingestablishmentsofLancashire，Derbyshire，andtheWestofScotland。InnobranchofEnglishindustryhasmechanicalingenuityproducedsuchbrilliantresultsashere，butinnootherhasitsocrushedtheworkers。Theapplicationofengravedcylindersdrivenbysteam-power，andthediscoveryofamethodofprintingfourtosixcoloursatoncewithsuchcylinders，hasascompletelysupersededhand-workasdidtheapplicationofmachinerytothespinningandweavingofcotton，andthesenewarrangementsintheprinting-workshavesupersededthehand-workersmuchmorethanwasthecaseintheproductionofthefabrics。Oneman，withtheassistanceofonechild，nowdoeswithamachinetheworkdoneformerlyby200blockprinters；asinglemachineyields28

yardsofprintedclothperminute。Thecalicoprintersareinaverybadwayinconsequence；theshiresofLancaster，Derby，andChesterproduced(accordingtoapetitionoftheprinterstotheHouseofCommons)，intheyear1842，11，000，000piecesofprintedcottongoods:ofthese，100，000

wereprintedbyhandexclusively，900，000inpartwithmachineryandinpartbyhand，and10，000，000bymachineryalone，withfourtosixcolours。

Asthemachineryischieflynewandundergoesconstantimprovement，thenumberofhand-printersisfartoogreatfortheavailablequantityofwork，andmanyofthemarethereforestarving；thepetitionputsthenumberatone-quarterofthewhole，whiletherestareemployedbutoneortwo，inthebestcasethreedaysintheweek，andareill-paid。Leachassertsofoneprint-works(DeeplyDale，nearBury，inLancashire)，thatthehand-printersdidnotearnonanaveragemorethanfiveshillings，thoughlieknowsthatthemachine-printerswereprettywellpaid。Theprint-worksarethuswhollyaffiliatedwiththefactorysystem，butwithoutbeingsubjecttothelegislativerestrictionsplaceduponit。Theyproduceanarticlesubjecttofashion，andhavethereforenoregularwork。Iftheyhavesmallorders，theyworkhalf-time；iftheymakeahitwithapattern，andbusinessisbrisk，theyworktwelvehours，perhapsallnight。Intheneighbourhoodofmyhome，nearManchester，therewasaprint-worksthatwasoftenlightedwhenI

returnedlateatnight；andIhaveheardthatthechildrenwereobligedattimestoworksolongthere，thattheywouldtrytocatchamoment’srestandsleeponthestonestepsandinthecornersofthelobby。Ihavenolegalproofofthetruthofthestatement，orIshouldnamethefirm。

TheReportoftheChildren’sEmploymentCommissionisverycursoryuponthissubject，statingmerelythatinEngland，atleast，thechildrenaremostlyprettywellclothedandfed(relatively，accordingtothewagesoftheparents)，thattheyreceivenoeducationwhatsoever，andaremorallyonalowplane。Itisonlynecessarytorememberthatthesechildrenaresubjecttothefactorysystem，andthen，referringthereadertowhathasalreadybeensaidofthat，wecanpasson。

Oftheremainingworkersemployedinthemanufactureofclothingstuffslittleremainstobesaid；thebleachers’workisveryunwholesome，obligingthemtobreathechlorine，agasinjurioustothelungs。Theworkofthedyersisinmanycasesveryhealthful，sinceitrequirestheexertionofthewholebody；howtheseworkersarepaidislittleknown，andthisisgroundenoughfortheinferencethattheydonotreceivelessthantheaveragewages，otherwisetheywouldmakecomplaint。Thefustiancutters，who，inconsequenceofthelargeconsumptionofcottonvelvet，arecomparativelynumerous，beingestimatedatfrom3，000to4，000，havesufferedveryseverely，indirectly，fromtheinfluenceofthefactorysystem。Thegoodsformerlywovenwithhand-looms，werenotperfectlyuniform，andrequiredapractisedhandincuttingthesinglerowsofthreads。Sincepower-loomshavebeenused，therowsrunregularly；eachthreadoftheweftisexactlyparallelwiththeprecedingone，andcuttingisnolongeranart。Theworkersthrownoutofemploymentbytheintroductionofmachineryturntofustiancutting，andforcedownwagesbytheircompetition；themanufacturersdiscoveredthattheycouldemploywomenandchildren，andthewagessanktotheratepaidthem，whilehundredsofmenwerethrownoutofemployment。Themanufacturersfoundthattheycouldgettheworkdoneinthefactoryitselfmorecheaplythaninthecutters’work-room，forwhichtheyindirectlypaidtherent。

Sincethisdiscovery，thelowupper-storeycutters’roomsstandemptyinmanyacottage，orareletfordwellings，whilethecutterhaslosthisfreedomofchoiceofhisworking-hours，andisbroughtunderthedominionofthefactorybell。Acutterofperhapsforty-fiveyearsofagetoldmethathecouldrememberatimewhenhehadreceived8d。ayardforwork，forwhichhenowreceivedld。；true，hecancutthemoreregulartexturemorequicklythantheold，buthecanbynomeansdotwiceasmuchinanhourasformerly，sothathiswageshavesunktolessthanaquarterofwhattheywere。Leachygivesalistofwagespaidin1827andin1843forvariousgoods，fromwhichitappearsthatarticlespaidin1827attherateof4d。，21/2d。，23/4d。，and1d。peryard，werepaidin1843attherateof11/2d。，1d。，3/4d。，and3/8d。peryard，cutters’wages。Theaverageweeklywage，accordingtoLeach，wasasfollows:1827，£；16s。6d。；

£；l2s。6d。；£；1；£；16s。6d。；andforthesamegoodsin1843，10s。；7s。；6s。8d。；10s。；whiletherearehundredsofworkerswhocannotfindemploymentevenattheselast-namedrates。Ofthehand-weaversofthecottonindustrywehavealreadyspoken；theotherwovenfabricsarealmostexclusivelyproducedonhand-looms。Heremostoftheworkershavesufferedastheweavershavedonefromthecrowdinginofcompetitorsdisplacedbymachinery，andare，moreover，subjectlikethefactoryoperativestoaseverefinesystemforbadwork。Take，forinstance，thesilkweavers。

Mr。Brocklehurst，oneofthelargestsilkmanufacturersinallEngland，laidbeforeacommitteeofMembersofParliamentliststakenfromhisbooks，fromwhichitappearsthatforgoodsforwhichhepaidwagesin1821attherateof30s。，14s。；31/2s。，3/4s。，11/10s，10s。；hepaidin1831

but9s。，71/2s。，21/4s。，1/3s。，1/2s。，61/4s。，whileinthiscasenoimprovementinthemachineryhastakenplace。ButwhatMr。Brocklehurstdoesmayverywellbetakenasastandardforall。Fromthesamelistsitappearsthattheaverageweeklywageofhisweavers，afteralldeductions，was，in1821，161/2s。，and，in1831，but6s。Sincethattimewageshavefallenstillfurther。Goodswhichbroughtin4d。weavers’wagesin1851，bringinbut21/2d。in1845(singlesarsnets)，andagreatnumberofweaversinthecountrycangetworkonlywhentheyundertakethesegoodsat11/2d-2d。

Moreover，theyaresubjecttoarbitrarydeductionsfromtheirwages。Everyweaverwhoreceivesmaterialsisgivenacard，onwhichisusuallytobereadthattheworkistobereturnedataspecifiedhouroftheday；thataweaverwhocannotworkbyreasonofillnessmustmakethefactknownattheofficewithinthreedays，orsicknesswillnotberegardedasanexcuse；thatitwillnotberegardedasasufficientexcuseiftheweaverclaimstohavebeenobligedtowaitforyarn；thatforcertainfaultsinthework(if，forexample，moreweft-threadsarefoundwithinagivenspacethanareprescribed)，notlessthanhalfthewageswillbededucted；andthatifthegoodsshouldnotbereadyatthetimespecified，onepennywillbedeductedforeveryyardreturned。Thedeductionsinaccordancewiththesecardsaresoconsiderablethat，forinstance，amanwhocomestwiceaweektoLeigh，inLancashire，togatherupwovengoods，bringshisemployeratleast£；15fineseverytime。Heassertsthishimself，andheisregardedasoneofthemostlenient。Suchthingswereformerlysettledbyarbitration；butastheworkerswereusuallydismissediftheyinsisteduponthat，thecustomhasbeenalmostwhollyabandoned，andthemanufactureractsarbitrarilyasprosecutor，witness，judge，law-giver，andexecutiveinoneperson。AndiftheworkmangoestoaJusticeofthePeace，theansweris:”Whenyouacceptedyourcardyouentereduponacontract，andyoumustabidebyit。”Thecaseisthesameasthatofthefactoryoperatives。Besides，theemployerobligestheworkmantosignadocumentinwhichhedeclaresthatheagreestothedeductionsmade。Andifaworkmanrebels，allthemanufacturersinthetownknowatoncethatheisamanwho，asLeachsays，”isanenemytoallticket-madelawandsocialorderandhastheimpudencetodisputethewisdomofthosewhomheoughttoknowarehissuperiorsinsociety。”Naturally，theworkersareperfectlyfree；themanufacturerdoesnotforcethemtotakehismaterialsandhiscards，buthesaystothemwhatLeachtranslatesintoplainEnglishwiththewords:”Ifyoudon’tliketobefrizzledinmyfrying-pan，youcantakeawalkintothefire。”ThesilkweaversofLondon，andespeciallyofSpitalfields，havelivedinperiodicdistressforalongtime，andthattheystillhavenocausetobesatisfiedwiththeirlotisprovedbytheirtakingamostactivepartinEnglishlabourmovementsingeneral，andinLondononesinparticular。

ThedistressprevailingamongthemgaverisetothefeverwhichbrokeoutinEastLondon，andcalledforththeCommissionforInvestigatingtheSanitaryConditionoftheLabouringClass。ButthelastreportoftheLondonFeverHospitalshowsthatthisdiseaseisstillraging。

Afterthetextilefabrics，byfarthemostimportantproductsofEnglishindustryarethemetal-wares。ThistradehasitsheadquartersatBirmingham，wherethefinermetalgoodsofallsortsareproduced，atSheffieldforcutlery，andinStaffordshire，especiallyatWolverhampton，wherethecoarserarticles，locks，nails，etc。，aremanufactured。Indescribingthepositionoftheworkersemployedinthesetrades，letusbeginwithBirmingham。

ThedispositionoftheworkhasretainedinBirmingham，asinmostplaceswheremetalsarewrought，somethingoftheoldhandicraftcharacter；thesmallemployersarestilltobefound，whoworkwiththeirapprenticesintheshopathome，orwhentheyneedsteam-power，ingreatfactorybuildingswhicharedividedintolittleshops，eachrentedtoasmallemployer，andsuppliedwithashaftmovedbytheengine，andfurnishingmotivepowerforthemachinery。LeonFaucher，authorofaseriesofarticlesintheRevuedesdeuxMondes，whichatleastbetraystudy，andarebetterthanwhathashithertobeenwrittenuponthesubjectbyEnglishmenorGermans，characterisesthisrelationincontrastwiththemanufactureofLancashireasDemocratieindustrielle，andobservesthatitproducesnoveryfavourableresultsformasterormen。Thisobservationisperfectlycorrect，forthemanysmallemployerscannotwellsubsistontheprofitdividedamongstthem，determinedbycompetition，aprofitunderothercircumstancesabsorbedbyasinglemanufacturer。Thecentralisingtendencyofcapitalholdsthemdown。Foronewhogrowsrichtenareruined，andahundredplacedatgreaterdisadvantagethanever，bythepressureoftheoneupstartwhocanaffordtosellmorecheaplythanthey。Andinthecaseswheretheyhavetocompetefromthebeginningagainstgreatcapitalists，itisself-evidentthattheycanonlytoilalongwiththegreatestdifficulty。Theapprenticesare，asweshallsee，quiteasbadlyoffunderthesmallemployersasunderthemanufacturers，withthesingledifferencethatthey，inturn，maybecomesmallemployers，andsoattainacertainindependence——thatistosay，theyareatbestlessdirectlyexploitedbythebourgeoisiethanunderthefactorysystem。Thusthesesmallemployersareneithergenuineproletarians，sincetheyliveinpartupontheworkoftheirapprentices，norgenuinebourgeois，sincetheirprincipalmeansofsupportistheirownwork。ThispeculiarmidwaypositionoftheBirminghamiron-workersistoblamefortheirhavingsorarelyjoinedwhollyandunreservedlyintheEnglishlabourmovements。Birminghamisapoliticallyradical，butnotaChartist，town。

Thereare，however，numerouslargerfactoriesbelongingtocapitalists；

andinthesethefactorysystemreignssupreme。Thedivisionoflabour，whichisherecarriedouttothelastdetail(intheneedleindustry，forexample)，andtheuseofsteam-power，admitoftheemploymentofagreatmultitudeofwomenandchildren，andwefindhere[1]preciselythesamefeaturesreappearingwhichtheFactories’Reportpresented，——

theworkofwomenuptothehourofconfinement，incapacityashousekeepers，neglectofhomeandchildren，indifference，actualdisliketofamilylife，anddemoralisation；further，thecrowdingoutofmenfromemployment，theconstantimprovementofmachinery，earlyemancipationofchildren，husbandssupportedbytheirwivesandchildren，etc。，etc。Thechildrenaredescribedashalf-starvedandragged，thehalfofthemaresaidnottoknowwhatitistohaveenoughtoeat，manyofthemgetnothingtoeatbeforethemiddaymeal，orevenlivethewholedayuponapennyworth’ofbreadforanoondaymeal——therewereactuallycasesinwhichchildrenreceivednofoodfromeightinthemorninguntilsevenatnight。Theirclothingisveryoftenscarcelysufficienttocovertheirnakedness，manyarebarefooteveninwinter。Hencetheyareallsmallandweakfortheirage，andrarelydevelopwithanydegreeofvigour。Andwhenwereflectthatwiththeseinsufficientmeansofreproducingthephysicalforces，hardandprotractedworkincloseroomsisrequiredofthem，wecannotwonderthattherearefewadultsinBirminghamfitformilitaryservice。Theworking-men，saysarecruitingsurgeon，”areshorter，morepuny，andaltogetherinferiorintheirphysicalpowers。Manyofthemenpresentedforexaminations，aredistortedinthespineandchest。”Accordingtotheassertionofarecruitingsergeant，thepeopleofBirminghamaresmallerthanthoseanywhereelse，beingusually5feet4to5inchestall；outof613recruits，but238werefoundfitforservice。Astoeducation，aseriesofdepositionsandspecimenstakenfromthemetaldistrictshavealreadybeengiven，towhichthereaderisreferred。Itappearsfurther，fromtheChildren’sEmploymentCommission’sReport，thatinBirminghammorethanhalfthechildren，betweenfiveandfifteenyearsattendnoschoolwhatsoever，thatthosewhodoareconstantlychanging，sothatitisimpossibletogivethemanytrainingofanenduringkind，andthattheyareallwithdrawnfromschoolveryearlyandsettowork。Thereportmakesitclearwhatsortofteachersareemployed。Oneteacher，inanswertothequestionwhethershegavemoralinstruction，said，No，forthreepenceaweekschoolfeesthatwastoomuchtorequire，butthatshetookagreatdealoftroubletoinstillgoodprinciplesintothechildren。(AndshemadeadecidedslipinherEnglishinsayingit。)Intheschoolsthecommissionerfoundconstantnoiseanddisorder。Themoralstateofthechildrenisinthehighestdegreedeplorable。Halfofallthecriminalsarechildrenunderfifteen，andinasingleyearninetyten-years’-oldoffenders，amongthemforty-fourseriouscriminalcases，weresentenced。Unbridledsexualintercourseseems，accordingtotheopinionofthecommissioner，almostuniversal，andthatataveryearlyage。

IntheirondistrictofStaffordshirethestateofthingsisstillworse。

Forthecoarsewaresmadehereneithermuchdivisionoflabour(withcertainexceptions)norsteam-powerormachinerycanbeapplied。InWolverhampton，Willenhall，Bilston，Sedgeley，Wednesfield，Darlaston，Dudley，Walsall，Wednesbury，etc。，thereare，therefore，fewerfactories。Butchieflysingleforges，wherethesmallmastersworkalone，orwithoneormoreapprentices，whoservethemuntilreachingthetwenty-firstyear。ThesmallemployersareinaboutthesamesituationasthoseofBirmingham；buttheapprentices，asarule，aremuchworseoff。Theygetalmostexclusivelymeatfromdiseasedanimalsorsuchashavediedanaturaldeath，ortaintedmeat，orfishtoeat，withvealfromcalveskilledtooyoung，andporkfromswinesmotheredduringtransportation，andsuchfoodisfurnishednotbysmallemployersonly，butbylargemanufacturers，whoemployfromthirtytofortyapprentices。

ThecustomseemstobeuniversalinWolverhampton，anditsnaturalconsequenceisfrequentbowelcomplaintsandotherdiseases。Moreover，thechildrenusuallydonotgetenoughtoeat，andhaverarelyotherclothingthantheirworkingrags，forwhichreason，iffornoother，theycannotgotoSundayschool。Thedwellingsarebadandfilthy，oftensomuchsothattheygiverisetodisease；andinspiteofthenotmateriallyunhealthywork，thechildrenarepuny，weak，and，inmanycases，severelycrippled。InWillenhall，forinstance，therearecountlesspersonswhohave，fromperpetuallyfilingatthelathe，crookedbacksandonelegcrooked，”hind-leg”astheycallit，sothatthetwolegshavetheformofaK；whileitissaidthatmorethanone-thirdoftheworking-menthereareruptured。Here，aswellasinWolverhampton，numberlesscaseswerefoundofretardedpubertyamonggirls(forgirls，too，workattheforges)，aswellasamongboys，extendingeventothenineteenthyear。InSedgeleyanditssurroundingdistrict，wherenailsformalmostthesoleproduct，thenailersliveandworkinthemostwretchedstable-likehuts，whichforfilthcanscarcelybeequalled。

Girlsandboysworkfromthetenthortwelfthyear，andareaccountedfullyskilledonlywhentheymakeathousandnailsaday。Fortwelvehundrednailsthepayis53/4d。Everynailreceivestwelveblows，andsincethehammerweighs11/4，pounds，thenailermustlift18，000poundstoearnthismiserablepay。Withthishardworkandinsufficientfood，thechildreninevitablydevelopill-formed，undersizedframes，andthecommissioners’

depositionsconfirmthis。Astothestateofeducationinthisdistrict，datahavealreadybeenfurnishedintheforegoingchapters。Itisuponanincrediblylowplane；halfthechildrendonotevengotoSundayschool，andtheotherhalfgoirregularly；veryfew，incomparisonwiththeotherdistricts，canread，andinthematterofwritingthecaseismuchworse。

Naturally，forbetweentheseventhandtenthyears，justwhentheyarebeginningtogetsomegoodoutofgoingtoschool，theyaresettowork，andtheSundayschoolteachers，smithsorminers，frequentlycannotread，andwritetheirnameswithdifficulty。Theprevailingmoralscorrespondwiththesemeansofeducation。InWillenhall，CommissionerHorneasserts，andsuppliesampleproofsofhisassertion，thatthereexistsabsolutelynomoralsenseamongtheworkers。Ingeneral，hefoundthatthechildrenneitherrecogniseddutiestotheirparentsnorfeltanyaffectionforthem。

Theyweresolittlecapableofthinkingofwhattheysaid，sostolid，sohopelesslystupid，thattheyoftenassertedthattheywerewelltreated，werecomingonfamously，whentheywereforcedtoworktwelvetofourteenhours，werecladinrags，didnotgetenoughtoeat，andwerebeatensothattheyfeltitseveraldaysafterwards。Theyknewnothingofadifferentkindoflifethanthatinwhichtheytoilfrommorninguntiltheyareallowedtostopatnight，anddidnotevenunderstandthequestionneverheardbefore，whethertheyweretired。