第10章

FormanyyearsIhavetakenapeculiarinterestincottoncultivation，andin1870IintroducedtheexcellentEgyptianvariety，knownas“galleen，“intoCentralAfrica，andplanteditatGondokoro，northlatitude4degrees54"，withexcellentresults。Inthefirstyearthisgrewtotheheightofaboutsevenfeet，withaproportionatethicknessofstem，andthespreadingbranchesproducedanabundantcropofafinequality，whichdetacheditselffromtheseeds，immediatelyreducingtheoperationofthecleaning-machineor“cotton-gin“toaminimumoflabour。IhavebeenmuchstruckwiththeinferiorityofCypriancotton；

scarcelyanyofthecropfindsitswaytoEngland，butisexportedtoMarseillesandTrieste。ShouldConsulLang"ssuggestionbecarriedout，andthedutybetakenuponexporttorelievethegrowerfromthevexatiousdelaysoftheinquisitororgovernmentvaluer，therecanbenoquestionofimmediateimprovement。Thereisnomoretroubleorexpenseinproducingafirst-classcottonthaninthecommonestvariety，whenclimateandsoilaresopeculiarlyfavourableasinCyprus。Ifthegovernmentcontinuesthesystemofadvaloremtaxation，commonsensewillsuggestthatthehighestqualitywouldalikebefavourabletotherevenueandtothecultivator；therefore，intheinterestsofthecountryandofindividuals，everyencouragementshouldbeaffordedtothefarmerstoensurethebestofallspeciesofproducethroughouttheisland。TheexcellentcompilationofCaptainSavile，officiallyandexpresslyprintedfortheserviceofthegovernment，containsthefollowingpassages：——

“AccordingtoallaccountsthetaxationoftheinhabitantsofCyprushasunderTurkishadministrationbeencarriedoutinamostsevereandoppressivemanner，andtheimpostsuponcertainarticlesofagricultureandcommercehavebeensoheavythattheircultureandexporthasinsomecasesbeenalmostabandoned……

“Thecultivationofvinesforthemanufactureofwinehasbeensoheavilyandunjustlytaxed，thatagreatpartofthevineyardshaveoflateyearsbeenturnedtootherandmoreprofitablepurposes，orelsehavebeenabandoned，andconsequentlyabranchofagricultureforwhichtheislandisespeciallysuitedandaremunerativearticleofcommerceisneglectedandallowedtodecline。Anextensivedevelopmentofvineyardsandmanufactureofwineshouldbeencouraged，andwiththisobjectithasbeensuggestedthatitmightbewisetofreethisproductionfromallexceptexportduty。

“Allusionhasalreadybeenmadetotheinjuriouseffectofthecollectionofthetithe(dimes)uponcottonatthetimewhenthecropisgathered，insteadofatthetimeofshipment，andithasbeenexplainedhowtheformermethodpreventsthefarmersfromgrowingthebestandmostremunerativevarietiesoftheplant；thisisamatterthatrequirestheattentionoftheauthoritieswhenthere-adjustmentofthetaxesisconsidered。“

CaptainSavile"susefulbookisanechoofconsularstatementsandreportswritteninEnglandforgovernmentinformationwithoutanypersonalexperienceoftheisland；butfrommyowninvestigationsIcanthoroughlyendorsetheviewsexpressed，andIonlyregretthatthemiserableconditionsofouroccupationhaverenderedsuchnecessaryreformsmostdifficult，asthepovertyofthepresentgovernmentofCypruscannotaffordtoruntheriskofexperimentallessonsintaxation。

Whencriticisingandcondemningexistingevils，itmustbedistinctlyunderstoodthatIdonotpresumetoattachblametoindividualauthoritiesofthelocalgovernment：IdenouncethearbitraryandoppressivesystemofTURKISHrules，which，althoughinsomeinstancesmitigatedbyouradministration，stillremaininforce，andaretheresultsoftheconditionsthatwereacceptedwhenEnglandresolveduponthisanomalousoccupation。IhavetodescribeCyprusasIsawitin1879，andinthisworkIendeavourtointroducethepublictothetrueaspectofthesituation“asIsawit；“otherpeoplehaveanequalrightwithmyselftotheirownopinionsuponvarioussubjects，but，shouldwedifferuponcertainquestions，weshallatleastbeunanimousinpraiseoftheextremedevotiontoamostdifficulttaskinacontradictoryposition，exhibitednotonlybythegovernor，andcommissionersofdistricts，butbyallBritishofficersentrustedwithauthority。IfCypruswerefreefromthefettersoftheTurkishConvention，andtherevenueshouldbeavailableforthenecessaryimprovements，withcommercialandagriculturalreforms，thesameenergynowbestowedbythegovernorandotherofficialswouldrapidlyexpandtheresourcesoftheisland。Wearepronetoexpecttoomuch，andmustrememberthatatthetimeIwrite，onlytwelvemonthshaveelapsedsincethedayoftheBritishmilitaryoccupation。Noofficersunderstoodeitherthelanguage，orlaws，ofthepeopletheyhadtogovern；theywereforthemostpartspeciallyeducatedforthemilitaryprofession，andtheyweresuddenlyplungedintoofficialpositionswhereagricultural，legal，commercial，andengineeringdifficultiesabsorbedtheirentireattention，allofwhichhadtobecomprehendedthroughthemediumofaninterpreter。Itisrarethatthemostfavouredindividualcombinessuchgeneralknowledge；

TurksandGreeks，antagonisticraces，weretoliedowncontentedlikethelionandthelambundertheblessingofaBritishrule：allanimositiesweretobeforgotten。ThereligionofMussulmanswouldremaininviolate，andtheGreekChurchwouldholditsformerindependence：freedomandequalityweretobeassuredwhentheEnglishflagreplacedtheCrescentandStarupontheredensignbeneathwhichCyprushadwitheredasbeforeaflame；theresourcesofthecountryweretoawakenasfromalongsleep，andtheworldshouldwitnessthemarvellouschangebetweenCypruswhenunderTurks，andwhentransferredtoEnglishmen。“Lookuponthatpicture，andonthis！”Theofficersofourarmywerethemagicianstoeffectthistransformation，notonlystrangerstotheclimate，language，laws，customs，people，butwithoutMONEY：astheislandhadbeenrobbedofrevenuebytheconditionsoftheTurkishConvention。

Inspiteofthemanyabuseswhichstillexist，andwhichdemandreform，therecouldnotbeamoretangibleproofofthegeneralefficiencyoftheofficersofourarmythanthepictureofCyprusafterthefirstyear"soccupation。Althoughthegovernmenthasbeenseverelypinchedformeans，andaseasonofcrueldroughthassmittentheagriculturists；

withcommercelanguishingthroughtheuncertaintyofourtenure，theCyprianpopulationofallcreedsandclasseshavealreadylearnedtotrustinthehonourandunflinchingintegrityofBritishrulers，whichensuresthemjusticeandhasrelievedthemfromtheirformeroppressors。

CHAPTERXVII。

THEDISTRICTOFLIMASOLANDLANDOWNERS。

TheportofLimasolwilleventuallybecomethechiefcommercialcentreofCyprus，andinthedepressionof1879causedbydroughtandgeneraluncertaintyitformedafavourableexceptiontothegeneralrule。Itmaybeinterestingtoexaminethepositionoftherevenueduringtheyearsinclusivefrom1875to1878。

CUSTOMS。

Year。Revenue。Expenditure。Balance。

Piastres。Piastres。Piastres。

1875964，839164，663800，176

1876819，139172，472646，667

18771，340，643169，5061，171，137

18781，553，363161，5941，391，769

TheexportsfromLimasolhavebeenlargelyinexcessofimports：——

YearExportsYearImports187577，022187547，325

187659，895187650，920

187793，805187741，920

1878101，457187899，714

TheprincipalarticlesofexportfromLimasolarewineandcaroubs，andthegeneralproductionoftheseitemshasbeenasfollows：——

Year。Okes。Year。Tons。

1875Wine4，811，7321875Caroubs8，690

1876“3，710，8841876“6，080

1877“2，208，6171877“6，520

1878“5，795，1091878“4，345

ThedifferentdescriptionsofwineandspiritsproducedintheLimasoldistrictduringthelastfouryearsareasfollows，valuesinokes：——

Year。Rakior——Wine——

nativebrandyCommanderiea。RedWine。BlackWine。

1875467，711173，94685，0084，056，067

1876251，29887，58556，4342，815，567

1877181，26945，52238，5631，943，290

1878378，694180，103133，5555，102，757

Intheyear1878thegoodsexportedfromLimasolmaybeapproximatelyrepresentedby——

CottonforAustria……10，000okesvaluedat500poundssterling。

WoolforFrancec……9，500okesvaluedat560pounds。

RagsforItaly……77，600okesvaluedat700pounds。

SumachinleafforGreece……110，000okesvaluedat500pounds。

BlackwineforTurkey……1，850，000okesvaluedat25，000pounds。

CommanderiaforAustria……155，000okesvaluedat2，075pounds。

CaroubsforEngland，France，Russia，andItaly……10，000tonsvaluedat33，000pounds。

RaisinsforAustria，France，andTurkey……90，000okesvaluedat850pounds。

SkinsforGreece……9，800okesvaluedat1，025pounds。

Sundries……valuedat11，000pounds。

Totalvalueofexports……75，210poundssterling。

ThetobaccoproducedinthedistrictsofLimasolandBaffoandatLefka，inclusive，isameretriflecomparedtothecapabilitiesoftheisland：——

In1875thecropamountedto1，395okes。

1876“1，280“

1877“857“

1878“1，731“

Thisisonlyworthenumerationasanexampleoftheutterinsignificanceoftheproduction，whichshouldbeanimportantitemintheagriculturalwealthoftheisland。ThegreaterportionofthetobaccoconsumedinCyprusisimportedinbalesfromSalonica，andisconsignedtomanufacturerswhodivideandclassifytheleaves，whicharecut，andformedintopacketsbearingtheCustomHousestamps，supplieduponpurchase。Limasolaloneimportsabout20，000okes，whichareforwardedfromLarnaca，wherethedutyispaid。Noexportdutiesofanydescriptionareleviedupongoodsfromthisisland。

ThedirectbenefittotheCypriotesconferredbytheBritishoccupationwasexhibitedinthesuddenriseofvaluebothinrealpropertyandinlabour。Therentalofhouseswithintheprincipaltownswastrebled，anditwouldbedifficulttoestablishanaveragepriceoflandeitherintowns，orupontheoutskirts，asthepricesdemandedhavebeeninmostinstancesfictitious，representingthedesiresoftheseller，butinnowayverifyingtheactualsellingvalue。Ihaveonlyheardofafewsmallplotsthathavechangedhandsatquadrupletheirformerestimate，andasaruletherearefewbuyersduringthisperiodofuncertaintyrespectingthepermanenceofouroccupation；butownersholdoutinthehopeofanultimatedecisioninfavourofBritishabsolutepossession。InthetownofLimasoltherehasbeenadecidedriseinthegeneralvalueofproperty，whichisduetothesteadyimprovementofthetrade，anddoesnotrepresentamerespeculativeimpulseasinLarnaca，whichhassufferedbyasubsequentreaction。ThemunicipalreceiptsofLimasolhaveincreasedfrom207poundssterlinginthetwelvemonthsending30thSeptember，1878，to1718poundsinthetenmonthsof1879。ThishascertainlybeenduetotheenergyofColonelWarren，R。A。，thechiefcommissionerofthedistrict，towhomIamindebtedforallstatisticsconnectedwiththelocality。

ThepositionofadistrictchiefcommissionerwasbynomeansenviableinCyprus。Thepaywasabsurdlysmall，andhewasobligedtoinstitutereformsbothforsanitaryandmunicipalinterestswhichnecessitatedanoutlay，andincreasedthelocaltaxation。Thepopulationhadbeenledtoexpectageneraldiminutionofimpostsuponthesuddenly-conceivedBritishoccupation，andtheCypriotessomewhatresembledthefrogsinthefablewhenthenewKingLogarrivedwithatremendoussplashwhichcreatedwavesofhopeuponthesurfaceofthepool，butsubsidedintodisappointment；theyfoundthatimprovementscostmoney，andthatBritishreforms，althoughtheybestowedindirectbenefits，wereaccompaniedbyadirectexpenditure。ThecalmapathyofaCyprioteisnoteasilydisturbed；heisgenerallytolerablysober，orifdrunk，heisseldomthe“WORSEforliquor，“butratherthebetter，ashisusualaffectionatedispositionmaybeslightlyexaggerated，insteadofbecomingpugnaciousandabusiveliketheinebriatedBriton。Therearenopeoplemoreaffectionateintheirimmediatedomesticcircle，ormoregenerallycourteousandgentle，thantheCypriotes，butlikeagoodmanyEnglishpeople，theyhaveanaversiontoincreasedtaxation。Thus，althoughtheBritishcommissionersofdistrictsviedwitheachotherinahealthyambitiontoexhibitapictureofparadiseintheirspeciallocalities，thepeoplegrumbledatthecostofcleanlinessandhealthwithintheirtowns，andwouldhavepreferredtheoldtimeofmanure-heapsandbadsmellsgratistothenewregimeofcivilisationforwhichtheyhadtopay。

TheGreekelementisgenerallycombustible，andbeforethefirstyearofouroccupationhadexpiredvariouscausesofdiscontentawakenedPhilhellenicaspirations；asocietywasorganisedunderthenameofthe“CyprioteFraternity，“asapoliticalcentrefromwhichemissarieswouldbeemployedfortheformationofclubsinvariousdistrictswiththeobjectofinspiringthepopulationwiththenobledesireofaddingCyprustothefutureGreekkingdom。CorfuhadbeenrestoredtoGreece；

whyshouldnotCyprusbeaddedtohercrown？TherewouldbesympathisersintheBritishParliament，someofwhomhadalreadytakenupthecauseoftheGreekclergyintheirdisputeswiththelocalauthorities，andtheGreeksoftheislandhaddiscoveredthatnomatterwhatthemeritsoftheircasemightbe，theycouldalwaysdependuponsomemembersoftheHouseofCommonsastheiradvocates，againsttheexistinggovernmentandtheirowncountrymen。Underthesefavourableconditionsforpoliticalagitationthe“CyprioteFraternity“hascommenceditsexistence。Idonotattachmuchimportancetothisearlyconceivedmovement，asGreeks，althoughpatriotic，havetoomuchshrewdnesstosacrificeanimmediateprofitforaprospectiveshadow。TheislandbelongsatthismomenttotheSultan，andtheEnglisharesimplytenantsunderstipulatedconditions。BeforeCypruscouldbelongtoGreeceitmustbeseveredfromtheOttomanEmpire，andshouldEnglandbesufficientlywaywardtoagainpresentherselftotheworldasthespoiledchildoffortune，anddeliveroverhernewacquisitionaccordingtothewell-rememberedprecedentofCorfu，themonetaryvalueofallpropertyinCypruswoulddescendtozero，andthe“CyprioteFraternity，“

ifhouseholdersorlandowners，wouldraisetheGreekstandardovershatteredfortunes。

ThetotalofpopulationwithintheentiredistrictofLimasolin1879

represented23，530，comprising12，159malesand11，371females，ofallages。

Thefollowinglististheofficialenumerationofanimalsandtreeswithinthesameprovince：——

ANIMALS。

Cattle。Mules。Horses。Donkeys。Pigs。Goats。Sheep。

6，0061，8121，1294，0262，13819，89611，790

TREES。

Caroubs。Olives。Walnuts。

267，779114，413957

NaturalpineandCyprusforests，withoak，&c。，notcounted。

VINEYARDS。

Cultivatedland。Uncultivatedland。

40，642donums。114，650donums。21，180donums。

Accordingtothisofficialstatisticalrepresentationthecultivatedlandwouldbeinproportiontothepopulationaboutfivedonums，ortwoandahalfacres，perindividual。

Thequestionofownershipoflandswilleventuallyperplexthegovernmenttoagreaterextentthanmanypersonswouldimagine，andthedifficultyattendingtheverificationoftitleswillincreasewitheveryyear"sdelay。

BeforetheBritishoccupation，landwasoflittlevalue，andanextremeloosenessexistedinthedescriptionofboundariesandlandmarks。IntheabsenceoffencestheCypriotecangenerallyencroachuponanylandadjoininghislimit，shoulditbelongtothestate。Everyseasonhecandrivehisploughafewpacesfurtherintohisneighbour"sholding，unlessprevented，untilbydegreeshesucceedsinacquiringaconsiderableaccession。Thestateisthesufferertoanenormousextentbymanyyearsofsystematicinvasion。Forestlandhasbeenfelledandclearedbyburning，andtheoriginalsiteisnowoccupiedbyvineyards。

ThebriberyandcorruptionthatpervadedallclassesofofficialspriortotheBritishoccupationenabledanindividualtosilencethelocalauthority，whileheinmanyinstancesmorethandoubledhislegalholding。Theabsenceofdefinedboundarieshasfacilitatedtheseencroachments。Accordingtoanofficialreportthisdifficultyisdweltuponmostforciblyasrequiringimmediateinvestigation。Thevaguedefinitionintitle-deeds，whichsimplymentionsthenumberofdonums，affordsnomeansofprovinganunjustextension；suchtermsareusedas“thewoodsboundedbyahill，“or“thewoodsboundedbyuncultivatedland，“andthisindefiniteformofexpressionleavesamarginoffrontierthatispracticallywithoutlimit，unlesstheinvadermaybestoppedbyarrivingwithinayardofhisnearestneighbour。Myinformant，ColonelWarren，R。A。，chiefcommissionerofLimasol，assuredmethatsomeholdersoflandinhisdistrict，whosetitlesshowanamountofninetydonums，layclaimtotentimesthearea。Thereishardlyaproprietorwhodoesnotoccupyaridiculoussurpluswhencomparedwithhistitle-deeds，andtheencroachmentsareevennowproceeding。

Thissystemofland-robberywasconnivedatbytheofficialsfora“CONSIDERATION；“oldtitle-deedswereexchangedfornewontheapplicationoftheholder，andthesealsofthevenalauthoritiesrenderedthemvalid，atthesametimethathundredsofacreswerefraudulentlytransferredfromthestate。WhentheintentionofaBritishoccupationwasmadepublic，ageneralrushwasmadeforobtaininganexcessovertheamountdefinedinthetitle-deeds，bytheswindlingmethod；andtheextenttowhichthisplunderwasextendedmaybeimaginedfromthefactthat40，000suchdocumentswereawaitingthenecessarysignatureswhen，bythearrivaloftheBritishofficials，theTurkishauthority，whocouldnotsignthedeedswithsufficientexpedition，wasdismissed，andthefalsetitleswereinvalidated。

Themonasteriesandthevacouf(Turkishreligiouslands)layclaimtolandsofvastandundefinedextent，whicharemystifiedbytitlesandgiftsforcharitablepurposes，surroundedwithcloudsofobscureusagesandancientrulesthatwillaffordaboundlessfieldforlitigation。Infact，theexistinggovernmenthasarrivedattheunpleasantpositionofbeingexcludedfromtheland，nearlyallofwhichisclaimedeitherbyindividualsorreligiousinstitutions。

Thearrangementofthismostseriousquestionwillstirupanestofhornets。Theequitableadjustmentwoulddemandaminutesurveyofthevariousdistricts，andacomparisonoftheholdingswiththetitledeeds；butwhatthen？Itisalreadyknownthattheholdingsareinexcess，andwhereisthelegalremedythatcanbepracticallyapplied？

Iftheactualletterofthelawshallbeenforced，andeachproprietorshallbecompelledtodisgorgehisprey，therewillbeendlesscomplications。InEngland，twenty-oneyears"uninterruptedpossession，withoccupation，constitutesavalidtitle。InCyprustheextendedholdingshaveinmanyinstancesbeeninherited，andhaveremainedunquestionedastheacknowledgedpropertyofindividuals，whileinothercasestheyhavebeenmorerecentlyacquired。Thequestionwillcompriseeverypossibledifficulty，andcanonlybedeterminedbyaspecialcommissionofficiallyappointedforalocalinvestigationthroughouteachseparatedistrict。

Thiswillbealabourofyears，andtheinnumerableintricaciesandentanglementswilltestthepatienceandHONESTYofinterpretersinacountrywherebriberyhasalwaysopenedagoldenroadforanescapefromdifficulty，whileourownauthoritiesareentirelyignorantofthenativelanguage。Itisthislackofnaturalmeansofcommunicationvivavocewhichincreasesthealreadyawkwardpositionofhighofficials：thepowerofspeechbelongstothedragomanalone，andagreatgulfexistsbetweentheEnglishandtheCypriote，whorepresentthedeafanddumbintheabsenceofaninterpreter。Theoldsong“Wehavenomoney，“isthenowstereotypedresponsetoallsuggestionsfordistrictschools，butifwearetoretainCyprus，oneofthemosturgentnecessitiesistheinstructionofthepeopleinEnglish。Itisnottobeexpectedthatanycloseaffinitycanexistbetweenthegoverningclassandthegoverned，inthedarknessoftwoforeigntonguesthatrequireathirdpersonfortheirenlightenment。Inmanycasessecrecymaybeofconsiderableimportance，andtheconversationshouldbeconfinedtotheprincipals，butthethirdpersonmustinvariablybepresentasinterpreter，andunlessheisamanofthehighestintegrityhewillnotloseanopportunityofturninghisknowledgeofstatesecretstoaccountforhisownadvantage。ThroughouttheLevantitisdifficulttofindmenwhocombinetherarequalitiesnecessaryforaconfidentialdragoman；suchapersonwouldbeinvaluable，ashewouldrepresentallthecardinalvirtues，atthesametimethathemustpossessanaturalaptitudeforhisprofession，andastoreofpatience，withthemostunruffledtemper。

Thenativesdreadtheinterpreter，theyknowfullwellthatonewordmisunderstoodmayalterthebearingoftheircase，andtheybelievethatalittlegoldjudiciouslyappliedmayexertapeculiargrammaticalinfluenceuponthepartsofspeechofthedragoman，whichdirectlyaffectstheirinterests。Thereare，nodoubt，menofhonourandgreatcapabilitywhooccupythisimportantposition，atthesametimeitiswellknownthatmanyinterpretershavebeenfoundguilty；theexceptionsprovingtherule，andexhibitingtheextremedangerandgeneraldisadvantageintheignoranceofthenativelanguage。ItcannotbeexpectedthattheEnglishofficialsaretoreceiveamiraculousgiftoffierytongues，andtoaddresstheirtemporarysubjectsinTurkishandinGreek；butitishighlyimportantthatwithoutdelayschoolsshouldbeestablishedthroughouttheislandfortheinstructionoftheyoung，whointwoorthreeyearswillobtainaknowledgeofEnglish。Wheneverthepeopleshallunderstandourlanguage，theywillassimilatewithourcustomsandideas，andtheywillfeelthemselvesaportionofourempire：butuntilthenavoidwillexcludethemfromsocialintercoursewiththeirEnglishrulers，andtheywillnaturallygravitatetowardsGreece，throughthesimplemediumofamother-tongue。LimasolmustperforceofitsgeographicaladvantagesbecomethecapitalofCyprus。AsIhavealreadydescribed，theportmaybemuchimproved。Theneighbouringcountryishealthy，andwellcoveredwithtrees；thelandscapeispleasing，andthenewroadopensadirectcommunicationwiththemountainsanatorium。Themostimportantexportsoftheislandareproducedwithinthedistrict，and，asmightbeexpected，theresultofcommercialenterpriseisexhibitedintheincreasedintelligenceandactivityoftheLimasolinhabitants。Itishighlytobedesiredthatthisfavourablepositionshouldbecometheseatofgovernment。Althoughthetroopsin1879arecampedamongthebarrenrocksbeneaththepine-forestsuponMountTroodos，atanelevationofabout5800feetabovethesea，thereisnonecessityforastationatsoextremeandinconvenientanaltitudeinnorthlatitude35degrees。Thegeneralunhealthinessofthetroopsuponthefirstoccupationoftheislandduringthesummerandautumnof1878，determinedthemilitaryauthoritiestoarrangethenewcampatthegreatestaltitudepracticablewitharegardtothesupplyofwater，buttheexperiencegainedin1879

provesthatapermanentcamp，orbarracks，maybeequallyhealthyatalowerandmoreconvenientlevel。ThisfactwouldestablishanadditionaladvantageintheselectionofLimasolforheadquarters，asthetroopswouldbeintheimmediateneighbourhoodatallseasons。ColonelWarren，R。A。，whohadbeentheprimemoverinalltheimprovementsthathadbeenmadeinLimasolsincetheBritishoccupation，waspromotedon1stAugusttothepositionofchiefofthestaffunderSirGarnetWolseley"sablesuccessor，Major-GeneralBiddulph，C。B。，R。A。，andthedistrictthuslostitsleadingspirit。Inreformingabusesandpromotingprogress，ColonelWarrenhadnotentirelyescapedtheusualfateofmenwhoareinadvanceoftheirage。TheunflinchingdeterminationtoadministerthelawswithoutfearorfavourtoallclasseshadinfringedupontheassumedimmunitiesoftheGreekChurch，whichhadalwaysreceiveddeferentialconsiderationfromtheTurkishgovernment，andalthoughactuallyliabletotaxation，therighthadneverbeenenforced。ThisisacuriouscontradictiontothevulgarbeliefinMussulmanintoleranceandbigotry；theGreekChurchnotonlyenjoyedaperfectfreedomundertheTurks，butthebishopswereassistedinobtainingaforcedtributefromtheirflockbythepresenceofTurkishzaphtiehs(police)，whoaccompaniedthemduringtheirjourneysthroughthediocese。

AninterferencewithChurchpropertyorestablishedrightsiscertaintocreateabuzzingoftheecclesiasticalbees，whowillswarmagainsttheinvaderwitheverystingpreparedforaction。Asthecasewasinvestigatedbyaspecialcourtofinquiry，andterminated，asmighthavebeenexpected，completelyinfavourofColonelWarren，itisnotnecessarytoenteruponminutedetails；but，astheplaintiffwastheBishopofCitium，andthisfirstpublicattackcreatedapeculiaragitationthatwillprobablyberepeated，itmaybeinterestingtoexaminetheactualpositionoftheGreekChurchasitexistedduringtheTurkishadministration。

TheChurchinCyprusisrepresentedbyanArchbishopandthreeBishopsastheacknowledgedheads。ThedioceseoftheformercomprisesLefkosia，Famagousta，andtheCarpasdistricts，whilethethreeBishopricsarethoseofLarnacaorCitium，Kyrenia，andBaffo。

TherevenuesoftheArchbishopamounttoabout？000ayear，andthenecessaryexpenditureforstaff，schools，&c。，to？500。TheBishopricofBaffoistherichest，witharevenueofabout？000；atthesametimetheoutgoingsaresmall，amountingto？00ayearforthepaymentofhisstaff，andone-fifthoftheexpensesofapublicschool。

TheBishopricofLarnacaorCitiumisvaluedatabout？00ayear，buttheexpenditureisconfinedto？00。ThatofKyreniaisaboutthesameasCitium。Thereisnopossibilityofdetermininganexactfigure，astheserevenuesaredependentuponvoluntarypayments，whichcannotbeenforcedbyanystatute；butthereisa“Berat“(decree)whichinvitesthelocalauthoritiestorenderthebishopsassistanceinthecollectionoftheirrevenues，withouttheabsoluteenforcementofanypayments。Noamountsduetothebishopsforeithercanonical，ecclesiastical，oralms(Zitia)，canberecoveredthroughacourtoflaw。Ontheotherhand，theall-powerfulcountenanceaffordedbytheTurkishgovernmentrepresentedbypublicfunctionaries(zaphtiehs)，whoaccompaniedthebishopsduringtheirdiocesanvisitsuponatourofcollection，wasamoralinfluencethatsucceededinextortingtheunwillingfees。Incaseofadefaultingvillage，itissaidthatabishophasbeenknowntosuspendthefunctionsofthepriestuntilthenecessarypaymentsshouldbecompletedbyhisparishioners，who，thustemporarilycutofffromallghostlycomfort，hastenedtoarriveatapecuniarycompromise。

ThemonasteriesareanimportantinstitutionthroughoutCyprus，andthereisadecideddifferencebetweenthemonksoftheseestablishmentsandthegeneralpriesthood。Themonksaresupposedtodevotetheirlivestocharitableobjects；theyarenotallowedtomarry，andtheyhaveasuperioreducation，asallcanreadandwrite。Ontheotherhand，thepriestsaregrosslyignorant，anditiscomputedthatonlyaquarteroftheirnumbercouldevenwritetheirownnames。Theseareallowedtomarryonewife，buttheycannotre-marryintheeventofherdecease；

theyaregenerallypoortoasuperlativedegree，andarefrequentlyobligedtoworkforhirelikecommonlabourers。Shouldamandesiretobecomeapriest，itisonlynecessarythatheshouldberecommendedbytheinhabitantsofhisvillageasapersonofgoodreputationthatwouldbesuitablefortheoffice：heisthenordainedbythebishopuponpaymentofafeeofaboutonehundredpiastres(or150)，andheisatonceatlibertytoenteruponhisduties。Theseordinationfeesareatemptationtothebishopstoincreasethenumberofprieststoanunlimitedextent，andtheresultisseenthroughoutCyprusinalargeandsuperfluousbodyofthemostignorantpeople，totallyunfittedfortheirposition。

Themonasteriesvaryintheirrevenues，astheyhavederivedtheirpossessionsatdifferentperiodsfromgrantsofland，orprivategifts，orlegacies。Inlikemannerwiththebishops，althoughtheycannotlegallycompelthevillagerstopayaccordingtotheirdemands，theyassumedapowerwhichbylongsufferancehadbecomerecognisedbytheignorantpeasantry，whoreluctantlyaccededtotheirclaims。Ihavemyselfwitnessedanaltercationbetweenthemonksandshepherdsonthemountainsuponaquestionofcheesesandgoats，whichtheformerclaimedasannuallyduetothemonastery；itappearedthatpriortotheBritishoccupationtheyhadbeenablebythreatstoextortthisdemand，buttheshepherdshadnowdeterminedtofreethemselvesfromallpaymentsbeyondthosewhichthelawcompelled，andtheyresistedthepriestlyauthority，beforewhichtheyhadhithertoremainedasslaves。ThisspiritofindependencethathasbeensoquicklydevelopedbytheequityofBritishrulewillprobablyextend，andmayseriouslyinterferewiththerevenuesoftheChurch，shouldthepopulationdeterminetoabidebytheirlegalstatusandrefusetheordinaryfees。Itcannotbeexpectedthateitherbishops，monks，orpriestsregardthischangewithsatisfaction，andintheirheartstheymaysighforthegoodoldtimesofaTurkishadministration，whentheGreekChurchofCypruswasanimperiuminimperiothatcouldswayboththemindsandpursesofthemultitude，untouchedbylawsorequity，andmorallysupportedbythegovernment。

ThemostimportantmonasteryintheislandisthatofKykou；thisissituateduponthemountainsatanelevationof3800feetabovethesea，anditcomprisesanestablishmentofsixtymonks，withagrossrevenuefromvariouspropertiesindifferentportionsofthecountryestimatedtogetherwithdonationsatabout？000perannum。ThemonasteryofMaheraestimatesitsrevenueat？000；thatofFameromeniatNicosia，at？000withoutanyexpenditure，asthethreemonks，togetherwithoneservant，arepaidbytheextraincomesoftheChurch。Therearemanymonasteriesthroughouttheisland，andallwiththeexceptionofKykouandSt。Andrea，attheeasternpointofCyprus，payacertainportionoftheirrevenuetothebishopofthediocese。ThetwomonasteriesIhaveexceptedareperfectlyindependentofallecclesiasticalcontrolinrevenueandfinance。Considerablecautionwillbenecessaryinarrangingthelandquestionwiththesenumerousestablishments，whichhavehithertoenjoyedapeculiarindependence。Uptothepresenttimetheincomeofthebishopshasbeenderivedfromtheannualpaymentsfrommonasteries，bythecanonicaltaxpaidbyeverychurch；fromthealms(Zitia)，whichisataxlevieduponallcrops；fromthedishexposedforofferingsinchurchwhiletheyofficiate，andfromvariousordinationfeesandmarriagelicences。FromtheinquiriesImadeinvariousdependablequarters，thebishopsarenotgenerallybelovedeitherbythemonks，priests，orpublic；butthisabsenceofappreciationmaybeduetothecontinualdemandsuponthefundsofmonasteriesandthepocketsofthepeasantry，morethantoanypersonalpeculiaritiesofcharacter。

Therearestoriesofneglectofdutyandmisappropriationoffundsintendedforcharitablepurposes，whichIshoulddeclinetobelievepossibleamongecclesiasticsofsuchdevoutprinciplesandhighposition。TheArchbishopismuchbeloved，andisloudlypraisedbyallclassesoftheinhabitants，towhomheoweshiselectionassupremeheadoftheChurchafterthefollowingmanner：-

Intheeventofdeath，thevacantseeofCyprusisrepresentedbytheBishopofBaffo，andthenewarchbishopmustbeelectedbythepeople。

Thebishopoccupiesthepositionofpresidentofanecclesiasticalcouncil，towhichrepresentativesaresentfromeverydistrict，chargedwiththevotesoftheinhabitantsinfavourofthearchbishop。Uponhiselection，theapprovalandconfirmationofhisappointmentmustbeobtainedbyanimperialdecreebeforethearchbishopcanofficiate。Inthesamemannereverybishopiselectedbythepeopleofthedistrict，andtheirrepresentativesaresenttoNicosia，wherethearchbishoppresidesoverhiscouncil，orcourt；butthenewbishopmustalsobeconfirmedinhispositionbyanimperialdecree。

Shouldanarchbishopbeguiltyofanycrime，eithercivilorecclesiastical，hemaybedeposedbytheheadoftheChurchatConstantinople，actinginconjunctionwiththeTurkishgovernment，attherequestoftheinhabitantsofCyprus。

Bishopsmaybedeposedbythearchbishop，whowouldinsuchacaseassembletheSynod，composedoftheheadsofclergyinhispresidency。

Beforethistribunalabishopwouldbesummonedtoappearincaseofanaccusation，andthetrialwouldtakeplaceinopencourt；thepowerofpunishmentorabsolutionremaininginthehandsofthearchbishop。

TheTurkishgovernmentappearstohaveheldapeculiarpositioninrelationtotheGreekChurchinCyprus，as，althoughactinginconjunctionandinharmonywiththecustomsoftheinhabitants，itreservedtherightofsupremeauthorityinspecialcases；thusatvariousepochstheTurkishgovernmentdeposedtheArchbishopsChrissanthonandPanareton，hangedtheArchbishopKipriano，andbanishedtheArchbishopsJoachimandDamaskino。

Fromtheuniversalcomplaints，therecanbelittledoubtthattheschoolsthatshouldbeestablishedfromfundsspeciallyinvestedforthatpurposeinthehandsofcertainmonasteries，bishops，&c。，aregrosslyneglected，andithasalreadybeensuggestedthatacommissionshouldbeinstitutedbytheBritishauthorities，underthepresidencyofthearchbishop，forarigidinvestigationoftheresourcesofallmonasteriesandtheACTUALrevenueofbishoprics，togetherwiththedisbursementofallsumsthatshouldhavebeenexpendedeitherforeducationorforcharitablepurposes。

Thetithesexactedbythebishopsfromthepeasantryaddseriouslytotheimpostsofordinarytaxation，andthereiseveryprobabilityofareformbeingdemandedbytheinhabitantsatthehandsoftheBritishadministration。WhenunderTurkishrule，theGreekChurchenjoyednotonlyperfectfreedom，butanimmunityfromtaxation，as，althoughtheywerelegallyliable，thelawwasneverenforcedupontheclergy。TheEnglishgovernmenthasdeterminedupontheobservanceofalllawsbyallclasses，andtheChurchhasawakenedtothefactthatthereisnoexception。

“FromtheearliesttimestheGreekChurchofCyprushasenjoyedanespecialdegreeofindependence；inthereignoftheEmperorZeno，A。D。

473，exceptionalprivilegeswereconcededtotheArchbishopofCyprus，who，althoughheownsthesupremacyofthePatriarchofConstantinopleovertheorthodoxGreekChurch，claimstobeentirelyindependentofhimasregardsChurchdiscipline；hewearspurple，carriesagold-headedsceptre，hasthetitleofBeatitude，signsinredastheGreekEmperorswerewonttodo，andusesasealbearingatwo-headedimperialeagle。ItissaidthatthesedignitieswereconferredinconsequenceofthefortunatediscoveryatSalamisofthebodyofSt。Barnabas，withacopyoftheGospelofSt。Matthew，whichpreciousrelicwassenttoConstantinople，andinreturntheEmperorconfirmedtheChurchofCyprusinitsabsoluteindependence，andgavethearchbishoptheaboveprivileges。“*(*Savile"sCyprus，p。142。)

St。PaulandSt。BarnabasvisitedtheislandA。D。45，andtheconversionofSergiusPaulus，theproconsulatPaphos，bytheirpreaching，wasthefirstseedofChristianityimplantedinCyprusattheperiodwhentheinhabitantsweresteepedinheathenism；butsomeofthesuperstitionsatpresentexistingarehardlylessdegradingthanpaganrites，andinthekissingoftheVirgin"scaveatTrooditissaforthepurposealreadydescribed，wecantraceanaffinitywiththeancientworshipofVenus。

CHAPTERXVIII。

ONPOLICE，FOOD，CLIMATE，&C。

ThepopulationofCyprusisabout200，000，ofwhichnumbermorethanthree-fourthsbelongtotheGreekChurch；neverthelesstheminorityofTurkscompletelydominatedpriortotheBritishoccupation。AlthoughtheCyprioteis，asIhavedescribed，courteous，gentle，andaffectionateinhisdomesticcircle，heisatthesametimecunningandaddictedtopettylarceny，andinallyourdealingswiththeseapparentlyeasy-goingpeopleyoumustexercisethesameacutenessthatissoabsolutelynecessaryinEngland。Therearefewgreatcrimesinproportiontothepopulation，nordoweeverhearofsuchatrocitiesasthoseclassesofmurderswhichsofrequentlyblackenthepageofourmodernhistory。

Homicideismorecommonthanactualmurder，andisoftentheresultofasuddenquarrelwhereknivesaredrawn，andafatalstabinpassionconstitutestheoffence。Sheep-stealingistheprevalentcrime，andiscarriedonwithanamountofhardihoodthatcanonlybeaccountedforfromthedifficultyofproof。Theflocksofgoats，&c。，roamoverthewildanduninhabitedareaofthehighmountainsandfrequentlystrayfromtheshepherdandarelostfortwoorthreenights；bythetimetheyarerecoveredacertainnumbermaybemissing，anditishardlypossibletodiscoverthethief，astheanimalshavebeendriventoagreatdistance。Trackingwouldbeoutofthequestionovertherockysurface，whereeverysmallplotofnakedsoilistroddenintocountlessfootmarksbytheinnumerablegoatswhichbrowseuponthemountainslopes。Atnighttheflocksaregenerallyherdedwithinacircleprotectedbyafenceofthornybushes；sometimesthesefoldsareinvadedbythievesduringthedarkness，andaconsiderablenumberaredrivenoff。Asthelocalitywouldbegenerallydistantfromtheprincipaltown，andtheshepherdcannotforsakehisflockforseveraldaystoprosecute，thethievesfrequentlyescape，andthisimmunityencouragesthemtofurtherdepredations。Duringmyresidencewithintheprecinctsofthemonastery，thefolduponthehillwithinaquarterofamileoftheestablishmentwasthusrobbed，andthethieveswereneverdiscovered。

Thepoliceorzaphtiehsaregenerallytoofarfromthesewildlocalitiestobeofanyservice，andtheyareatpresenttoofewforthepropersupervisionoftheisland。AplanisIbelieveincontemplationtoextendthisbodyuponascalethatwillrendertheforceefficientasagendarmerie，whichwouldtoaconsiderabledegreerelievethenecessityforapermanentEuropeanmilitaryforce。TherecanbenobettersoldierthantheTurkunderBritishofficers。TheChristiansinCyprushaveanobjectiontothisservice，andthereisnoreasonwhyamilitaryforcetocombinethedutiesofpoliceshouldnotbeorganised，thatwouldbethoroughlyacclimatised，andwouldatthesametimebemaintainedforlessthanhalftheexpenseofEnglishtroops。ThereisnothingtofearfromtheTurkishpopulationinCyprus，andtheywouldwillinglyenlistinourservice，andcouldalwaysbedependeduponincaseofnecessity。

Theforcealreadyorganisedisanadmirablenucleus，andcouldberapidlyincreased；eachmanfindshisownhorseandreceivestwoshillingsadayinclusive；hisclothesandarmsbeingprovidedbythegovernment。ForserviceinthetryingclimateofCyprustheTurkispre-eminent。IdonotseeanyneedforthepresenceofBritishtroopsinthisisland。Thefortressesarealldismantled，thenativesarepeaceful，andtheextremelylowpriceofwineandspiritsisterriblyadversetothesanitaryconditionoftheEnglishsoldier。ThestaunchsobrietyoftheTurk，hisextremehardihood，whichenableshimtoenduregreatfatigueuponthemostsimplefare，andhisamenitytodiscipline，togetherwithaninstinctiveknowledgeofarmsandanaturalcapacityforamilitaryprofession，renderhimavaluablematerialforourrequirementsinorganisingadefensiveforceinCyprus。ShoulditbedeterminedthatacertainnumberofBritishtroopsshallberetained，theycanbesparedunnecessaryexposure，andretiretothemountainsanatoriumduringthesummermonths。

ThewagesofbothartisansandordinarylabourershaverisenconsiderablysincetheBritishoccupation，asmighthavebeenexpected。

Skilledmasonsandcarpenterscannowcommandfrom3shillings6penceto5shillingsperdiem，whoformerlycouldearnamaximumof3

shillings。Ordinarymasonsforbuildingwallscanevennowbeobtainedfor2shillings6penceand3shillings，andagriculturallabourersreceive1shilling。Itisprobablethatshouldextensivegovernmentimprovementsbeundertaken，orlargecontractsbemadebyprivateindividualsforpublicworks，theratewillrisefromoneshillingtoeighteenpence，asthedemandforlabourshallincrease。Shouldschoolsbeestablishedandeducationbecomegeneralthroughouttheisland，theresultwillprobablybeexhibitedbyacorrespondingadvanceinwages，asindividualswillestimatetheirvalueatahigherrate。Atpresentthereisnoorganisedsystemofeducationforthepeasantry，andthefewschoolsareconfinedtoNicosia，Larnaca，Limasol，Baffo，andMorphu，allofwhicharesupportedbyoriginalgrants，voluntarycontributions，thepaymentsofpupils，andbycertainsumsannuallyprovidedbythebishopsandmonasteries。

Therateofwagesshouldinallcountriesbearajustproportiontothepriceoffood，andshouldthehabitsoftheCypriotesremainunchanged，andtheirdietretainitssimplecharacter，thereisnoreasontoanticipatearatethatwouldeventuallyexceed10shillingsor11

shillingsaweek。Ifwedetermineuponlowwages，wemustkeepdownthepriceoffood。TheTurkishadministrationhadpeculiarmunicipallawsuponthissubjectwhicharestillinforceinsomelocalities，buthavebeenabrogatedinLimasol。Ihavealreadymentionedthatthepriceofmeatwasfixedatacertainsumperoke，sothatgoodandbadsoldatthesamefigure，andresultedintheinferiorqualitiesbeingsenttomarket，whilethebestneverappeared。Fish，fruits，andvegetableswereratedinthesamemanner，andthemunicipalauthoritiesruled，andfixedastandardpriceforeverything；goodandbadallsharedalike。Bythisextraordinarylegislation，whichtotheEnglishmindisinconceivable，thefinestcauliflowersandthemostcommonvarietieswouldsellexactlyatthesameprice；nomatterwhatthequalityofvegetablesmightbe，allwerereducedtothesamelevel。Fishwassimplyfish。Thebestvarietiesandthemostinferiorwereincludedinthesamedespoticlaw。

Salmonandstickleback，turbotandsprat，herringsandsoles，would(hadtheyexisted)havebeensoldatsomuchapoundindependentoftheirqualities。Theresultwasthatifyourservantwenttomarkettobuyafinespeciesoffish，thesellerinsisteduponhistakingadueproportionofinferiortrashthatwashardlyeatable。“Allwasfishthatcametothenet；“littleandbig，goodandbad，fetchedthesameprice。

Suchasystemwouldensuretheworstofeverything；whatgardenerwoulddevotehisenergiestoproducingfinevarieties，ifacommonfieldcabbagewouldrivalhischoicestspecimensatthesameprice，butataminimumoflabour？

Itwasevidentthatthelowestclassofvegetableswouldrepresentthegardenproduce，asthisabsurdrulewasapremiumforindolence，whereasfreecompetition，thatwouldhaveassuredhighpricestothebestqualities，wouldhavestimulatedthecultivatorsintheirproductions。

Thisargumentwassoindisputablethatthechiefcommissioner(ColonelWarren，R。A。)determinedatallhazardstointroducefreemarketsintoLimasol；andalthoughopposedtotheconservativeideasofhismunicipalcouncil，hecarriedouthisviewsofahealthycompetitionandfreeandunrestrictedtrade，whichwouldawakentheCypriotestothefactthatlabourproperlydirectedwouldensurethebestqualities，thatwouldbenefittheproducerbysecuringthebestprices。

Self-evidentfactsinanEnglishcommunitymaybeutterlymisconstruedinCyprus。TheCypriotehasneverbeenaccustomedtounrestrictedfreedom，butlikehisownoxintheplough，herequiresacertainamountofcontrol，andhisenergiesmustbedirectedbyadriverorruler。Whenthevegetableswereassuredofacertainfixedpriceperokeregulatedbytheauthorities，heknewthathewouldobtainthatamountforhisproducewhethergoodorbad；accordinglyhebroughthisgoodstomarket。

But，whenhefoundthathisinferiorvegetableswouldremainunsold，orwouldrealiseameretrifleshouldacompetitor"sstallpresentasuperiorshow，hewithdrewaltogetherfromthemarket，whichatlengthbecamedeserted；andthefewwhomaintainedtheirpositionsadvancedtheirpricestosuchanexorbitantdegreethatvegetablesbecamealuxuryinwhichnonecouldindulgebuttherich。Thefishermenprofitedbythereformandonlycaughtsufficientfortheminimumdemand，butatthesametimethattheyreducedtheirownlabourandconsequentlythesupplyoffish，theyalsotookadvantageofthenewlawoffreetrade，andadvancedtheirpricesinextortionateproportion。Insteadoftheself-evidentprosperitythatwouldbenefitallclasses，thesuddenlibertytowhichtheCypriotewasunaccustomedacteddiametricallyagainstallEnglishexpectations，andforthetimeruinedthemarket。

ThiswastoldmebyColonelWarrenhimself，andthefailureoftheapparentlywholesomereformissuggestiveofthedangerthatmayresultinthetoosuddenenfranchisementofthoseraceswhichfromalongseriesofoppressionareunfitforperfectliberty。

Atthesametimetherecanbenodoubtthatthevexatiousandarbitrarysystemsoftaxationpursuedincollectingthe“dimes“haspreventedtheextensionofmarketgardens，andwerethistaxremitted，IcannotimagineanymorelucrativeoccupationthanthegrowthofvegetablesofthebestqualityfortheFREEmarketsoftheprincipaltowns。

Someencouragementisnecessaryinpromotingexhibitions，orhorticulturalshows，accompaniedbysubstantialprizes，invariouslocalities；andIshouldnotbedismayedbythefailureofthefirstwell-meantattemptatreforminLimasol。

WhenIwasatLimasolinMaythepriceofcauliflowerswas2pencetheoke(2。75lbs)。Fishwasdearat2shillingstheoke；mutton8pencetheoke。BeefisseldomeatenbytheCypriotes；potatoesaregood，andareusually1pennythelb。Flour，best，8pencetheoke。Ifasheepshouldbepurchasedalive，andbekilledforhomeconsumption，themuttonshouldnotexceed3penceperlb。forthebestquality，leavingtheskin，head，&c。，asprofit。

Therearetwovarietiesofsheep；thefat-tailedspeciessuppliesthebestmutton，butthewoolofbothiscoarse，andisexportedtoTriesteandMarseillestotheamountofabout400，000lbs。annually。Alargetradeinlambskinsisanecessaryresultoftheslaughterofaconsiderableproportionoflambseverywinterandspring，owingtotheusualscarcityofpasturage，whichlimitstheincreaseoftheflocks。

TheentireyieldofskinsisabsorbedbyTriesteandMarseilles。

Asheepingoodconditionofthefat-tailedspeciesweighswhendressed，withoutthehead，16okes，or44lbs。Fowlsinthecountrycangenerallybepurchasedfor1shillingeach，buttheyaredoublethatpriceinthemarket-towns。Turkeysfetchabout4or5shillingseach；pigeons6

pence；fishisabout2shillingstheoke，or8pencethelb。；milkabout4penceaquart；eggsfrom24to30foroneshilling。

ThegrapesarethebestfruitinCyprus；thesearereallygood，andinsomeinstanceswouldcomparefavourablywiththehot-houseproduceofEngland。Thebestvarietiescanbepurchasedatthevineyardsforlessthan1pennythelb。Theabovepricesprovethattheexpenseofnecessariesismoderate，andtheactualcostofexistencelow，butthewantofgoodservantsisaseriousdisadvantage。

AtsomefuturetimeCypruswillbecometheresortofdelicatepersonstoescapethewinterandspringofEngland，astheclimateofthesouthernportionoftheislandismostenjoyableduringthecoolseason。IntheneighbourhoodofLimasoltherearemanyexcellentsitesforbuilding，inpicturesquespotswithintwoorthreemilesofthetown。Atpresentthereisnoadequatecomfortforinvalids，andthehotelsarehardlyadaptedforpersonswhoareaccustomedtoluxury。Thecommencementisattendedwithrisk，anditwouldbedangerousundertheexistingconditionsoftheislandtobuildandfurnishanhotelwithgroundsandgardenssufficientlyattractiveforEnglishvisitors。ThereisnodirectcommunicationfromEngland，whicheffectuallydebarsCyprusfromaninfluxoftravellers。ItisnecessarytolandatAlexandriaeitherfromMarseillesorBrindisi，andthencetore-shipinsmallanduncomfortablesteamers，whicharebynomeanssuitableforladiesorinvalids。Theextraexpense，andaboveallthetroubleanddelayoflandinginEgyptandagainembarking，togetherwiththecostofhotelchargesatAlexandria，arequitesufficienttodeterstrangersfromvisitingCyprus。ThefirstnecessarystepwillbetheestablishmentofdirectcommunicationfromMarseillesandBrindisi，orfromTrieste。Inthatcase，acommencementmightbemadebyasmallcompanyoffriendswhodeterminetovisitCyprusannually，andtoarrangeanhoteluponsomefavourablesitenearLimasol，whichtheywillthemselvesoccupy，andwhichcanbeextendedaccordingtofuturerequirements。Englishpeoplearesomewhatlikesheepinfollowingeachother，andaquietbeginninginthissimplebutconvenientformwouldquicklydevelop，andCypruswouldbelinkedwiththebeatenpathsoftourists。TheneighbourhoodofKyreniaisthemostbeautiful，butduringwinteritisexposedtoseverenorthwindsfromthesnowymountains。

SomuchhasbeenwrittenandspokenagainsttheclimateofCyprusthatanunprejudicedaccountmaybeacceptable。Thereareseriousdisadvantagestothosewhobytheirofficialpositionareobligedtoremaininthelowcountryduringthesummermonths，wheretheextremeheatmustalwaysbeprejudicialtothehealthofEuropeans。FromthemiddleofOctobertoMaytheclimateismostagreeable，butthefiveinterveningmonthsshouldbepassedathigheraltitudes，which，asI

havealreadydescribed，affordavarietyofclimates。

NeitherLadyBakernormyselforservantshadanyclimaticailmentthroughoutourjourneysineveryportionoftheisland。AhorsekeeperhadfeverwhileatFamagousta，buthewasanativewhohadsufferedpreviously，andthefitwasareturnofchronicague；myownpeopleneverrequiredadoseofmedicinealthoughwewerelivingintentsthroughwinterandsummer。

Thewaterisgenerallywholesome，thereforedysenteryandbowelcomplaintsarerare；CONSUMPTIONISUNKNOWN；andpulmonaryaffectionsareuncommon。Fevers，includingthoseofatyphoidcharacter，andaguefrommalaria，aretheusualtypes；outbreaksofsmall-poxhavebeenreducedbygeneralvaccination。Theimprovementinsanitaryregulationswillnodoubtdiminishtheoccurrenceoftyphoidfevers，whichevennowarerareconsideringthefilthofthevillagesandthegenerallydirtyhabitsofthepopulation。

Hydrophobiaamongdogsisveryrare，anddistemperamongpuppiesisunknown。PigsarethegeneralscavengersintheCypriotevillages，andthefleshofthesefilthyfeedersismuchesteemedbytheChristianinhabitantsduringthewintermonths。Inthemonasteries，which，fromtheirgreataltitudeamongthemountains，areoccasionallysnowedupandexcludedfromcommunication，awintersupplyofstoresislaidupduringtheautumn。Thepigsandthefattestgoatsarekilled，andsaltedinamostpeculiarmanner。Withoutremovingabone，theanimalissplitfromtheneckalongtheabdomenthroughout，anditislaidcompletelyopenlikeasmokedhaddock。Everyjointismostcarefullydislocated，eventotheshoulder-bladebones，andremainsinitsplace。Thefleshisneatlydetachedfromeverybone，andinthisformthecarcaseissalted，andstretchedoutinthesuntodry。Whenprepareditresemblesashield，asitremainsperfectlyflat，thebackpresentingasmoothsurface，whiletheinsiderepresentsabeautifulspecimenofcomparativeanatomy，everyjointdislocated，butsecuredbytheoriginalintegumenttothesocket，andeverybonecleanlydetached，butundisturbedfromitsoriginalposition。Thedriedbodylookslikeasurgicalpreparationcarefullyarrangedforanexplanatorylecture。

Thecommonandlowqualityoffoodofthelowerclasses，andespeciallyoftheagriculturalpopulation，mustinduceawantofstaminawhichisunabletoresistthefeverinmalariousdistricts，andthisresultsinchronicdiseaseofthespleen。IhavealreadydescribedthegeneralprotuberanceoftheabdomenamongthechildrenthroughouttheMessariaandtheCarpasdistricts，allofwhomaremoreorlessaffectedbyspleneticdiseases。Onthemountainsamarkeddifferenceisobserved，asthroughoutthenumerousvillagesathighaltitudesthechildrenareashealthyasthoseofEngland，althoughpoorlycladinthehome-madecotton-stuffsofthecountry。

Ihavealreadyremarkedtheabsenceofflannelorotherwoollenmaterialwornnexttheskin；thenativesprefertheirownmanufacturestothoseofEurope，andastheygrowthecotton，whichisspunandwovenintoclothbytheirownwomen，thereisnoactualoutlayofcoin。Someofthenativematerialisverysuperiorinstrengthtothemachine-madestuffsofManchester，especiallyabluestoutcottonwithathinredlinethatisingeneralrequestbothformenandwomen。TheonlywoollenstuffthatismanufacturedinCyprusisconfinedtoNicosia，wherethedarkbrownandimmenselythickcapotesaremadeforthewinterwearofthecommonpeople。Acart-driverduringthehaltinawinternightsimplydrawsthehoodoverhisheadandface，and，wrappedinhislongandimperviouscapote，helayshimselfbeneathhiscartandgoestosleep。

Coarsewoollensaddle-clothsandbagsarealsomadeatNicosia。Thesamelocalityiscelebratedformanufacturesofsilkandgoldembroidery，allofwhichisperformedbythehandsofwomen，whiletheprintingofcalicoesandtheproductionofmoroccoleatherarelocalindustriesconfinedtothelabourofmen。

NocountryisbetteradaptedforsilkculturethanCyprus，wherethemulberry-treegrowsingreatluxuriancetothealtitudeof5000feet，andthewarmthanddrynessoftheclimateishighlyfavourabletothesilkworm。Thereisnotaxuponthemulberry，andshouldartificialirrigationbeencouragedbythegovernment，thistreeshouldbegenerallyplantedthroughouttheMessariaandallotherdistricts，andaspecialimpulseshouldbedirectedtosilkdevelopment。FormerlytheproductionofsilkwasanimportantexporttoFrance，butoflateyearsithasdecreasedtoamerebagatelle。InthespotwhereIamnowwritingtherearenumerousmulberriesinaprofusionofrichfoliagesufficientfortheproductionoftwopoundsofsilkbyeachtree；buttheyareentirelyneglected，andthesamedepressioninthesilkcultivationmayberemarkedthroughouttheisland。

Thenumerouswild-flowers，togetherwiththeblossomsoforangesandlemons，arehighlyfavourabletobees，ofwhichthereareseveralvarieties；butthereisnoexportofwax，whichisusedwithintheislandforthemanufactureofcandlesandtapersforthevariouschurches。TheCyprianbee-hiveisacontrivancewhichisextremelysimple，atthesametimethatitpossessesthegreatadvantageofsparingthebeeswhenthecombistobesaved。IseenoreasonwhythisprimitivearrangementshouldnotsucceedinEngland，andtherebysavecountlessswarmsfromdestruction。

Thehiveisanearthenwarecylinderaboutthreefeetsixinchesorfourfeetinlength，bytenortwelveinchesindiameter；thismightberepresentedbyacommonchimney-pot。Oneendissecurelystoppedbyawadofstraw，neatlymadeinasimilarmannertothebackofanarcherytarget。Thisissmearedontheoutsidewithclaysoastoexcludetheair。Asimilarwadisinsertedattheotherextremity，butthisisprovidedwithasmallapertureorentranceforthebees。InalargeapiarytwentyorthirtyoftheserudepipesorcylindersarepiledoneupontheotherinthesamemannerthatdrainingtilesareheapedinEngland，andtheyareprotectedfromthesunandrainbyashed，openonlytothefront。Thebeeslearntorecognisetheirseveralhiveswithoutconfusion，althoughthecylindersareexactlyalikeandcloselypackedtogether。

Whenthecombisfullydevelopedandthehoneyshouldbesecured，itisonlynecessarytoopenaholeintheback，byremovingthewad，andtoblowsmokethroughtheaperture；thebeesescapeuninjuredfromtheirordinaryentrance。Theoperator，whoseheadandfaceareprotectedwiththenecessaryveil，andhishandswithgloves，nowcutsoutthehoneyrequired，leavingacertainquantityasfoodforthebees，whowillreturntotheirhivewhenre-adjusted。

Whenaswarmiscaptured，thebeesareplacedinanearthenwarecylinderwhichhasbeenrubbedintheinsidewithamixtureofhoneyandwine。

Theshedisaveryimportantportionoftheapiary，asitaddsmateriallytothecomfortofthebeesbyprotectingthemfromtheextremesofweather。

Althoughthecoldofthewinterseldomattainsfreezing-point，itissufficientlyuncomfortablewhenaccompaniedbyrain，andallcreaturesthatareexpectedtothriverequireprotection。Theclimatevariesindifferentlocalities，butthefollowingmeteorologicaldata，thatwerecarefullyregisteredbymyself，accompaniedbythosekindlyfurnishedmebyColonelWhite，1stRoyalScots，whenchiefcommissionerofLefkosia，willaffordadependablebasisforanymedicalopinion。

ThermometerindegreesF。

Months。InchesMeanMeanMax。Min。

Rainfall8AM3PM

February，intheplainofMessaria……0。8046576837

March，intheCarpasdistrictandditto1。7149606845

April，intheKyreniadistrict，themaximumatMorphu……nil。57688347

At7AM

May，inLimasolto11thinstdo……ditto。64788476

do。Trooditissa，4，340ft。to31stfrom12th……0。3056。5627342

June，Trooditissa……1。136671。67854

July，do……0。1377。6788465

Thefallof1。13inchofraininJunetookplaceinonehourandahalf，andnoneoftherainwhichfellatthemountainrangeextendedtothelowcountry。Itwillbeseenthatfrom1stFebruarytotheendofMayonly2。51inchesfellthroughoutthecentralandeasterndivisions，andverylittlethatwasmeasuredintheCarpasdistrictreachedtheMessaria。Therewasafallofabout1。70inchinJanuaryatLarnacawhichIhadnoopportunityofmeasuring，butinclusiveofthisquantitythetotalrainfallfrom1stJanuarytotheendofsummerwouldnothaveexceeded4。21inchesinthelowercountry。

ThemonthofJulyisshowntobethehighesttemperatureatTrooditissa，butalthoughthemaximumof84andthemeanat3P。M。of78degreesmayappearhighattheelevationof4340feetabovethesealevel，theextremelightnessandpurityoftheairsofarmodifiedtheheatthatitwasneveroppressive。Thethermometerwassuspendedfivefeetfromthegroundagainstthetrunkoftheshadywalnut-treefourfeetfromthetentwall，intowhichspotthesunneverentered。

Thewaterthatissuedfromtherockbyastonespoutbeneaththearchshowedatemperatureof55degreesandnevervariedthroughoutthemonthsofJune，July，andAugust。Whenthethermometerwasabove80

degreesthiswaterfreshfromthespoutappearedicycoldincomparison。

ColonelWhite"sobservationsatLefkosia(Nicosia)forthemonthofJulyexhibitanextremelyhighrange，themeanat9A。M。=84。5Fahr。

degrees，andthemeanat9P。M。=83degreesFahr。；whilethedailymaximumattainstheseriousdegreeofamean=108。7degreesFahr。，thehighestpointregisteredbeing115degreesFahr。intheshade。

SuchatemperaturewilldestroythehealthofEuropeans，andthelocalityisnotsuitableforheadquarters。Thegovernoroftheislandmightpossiblyescapetothemountainsanatorium，buttheotherofficialswillsickenintheirvariousoverheatedoffices。

ThefollowingisColonelWhite"soriginalregister：-

METEOROLOGICALREGISTERATNICOSIA。

442FEETABOVESEALEVEL。

Instruments：——Casella"smaximum，minimum，andordinarythermometers；

NegrettiandZambra"slarge-sizeaneroidbarometer；29feetaboveground，allunderdeepverandah，shadedfromthesun，exposedtocoolestwind，and5feetabovetheroofofthehouse。Thereadingstakencarefully。

H。G。WHITE，Lieut-ColonelRoyalScots，Commissioner，Nicosia。

4thAugust，1879

CHAPTERXIX

POLITICALREFLECTIONS。

IntheforegoingchaptersIhaveendeavouredtodescribethepresentconditionofCyprus，exhibitingtheactualresourcesoftheisland，togetherwiththenumerousdisadvantagesresultingfromapeculiarityofclimate，andthetotalneglectofallpublicworksduringtheOttomanruleofthreecenturies。Itwillberemarkedthatnothingofvalueexistsbeyondtheagriculturalproductions，whicharenowprecariousthroughtheuncertaintyofseasons；themetallicwealthhaseitherbeenexhaustedbytheancientminers，oritremainstobedeveloped；theforestshavebeendestroyed；theharbourshavebeencloggedbysilt；thecommunicationsareconfinedtopackanimalsinthegeneralabsenceofroadsandbridges。Yet，notwithstandingthisneglectedconditionoftheisland，therevenuehasyieldedanaverageofabout200，000poundsannually，orasnearlyaspossibleonepoundsterlingperheadoftheentirepopulation。

Anincreaseofrevenuecanonlyresultfromacorrespondingadvanceinmaterialprosperity，whichmustdependuponaninfluxofcapitalthatwilldeveloptheagriculturalresourcesuponwhichCypruswillmainlydepend。Therearesomefewcollateralprofitsthatmayperhapsincrease，suchasthespongefisheries，andaprobablediscoveryofredcoralbytheemploymentofthehelmet-divingapparatus。Atpresenttheconditionofthesea-bottomislittleknown；thesponges，ofaninferior-quality，arecollectedbydredging，andtheboatspayafixedsumforalicenceaccordingtothesizeandconstructionofthedredgingapparatus，varyingfrom5to20poundsperannum；thisyieldsasmallannualrevenueofabout1600pounds，whichembracestheentirecoastofCyprus。

Bycarefulmanagementthesaltmightexhibitanincrease，butontheotherhand，thewine，ifrelievedfromthepresentextremetaxation，wouldforthefirsttwoorthreeyearsensureaconsiderablereduction。

Noincreaseofimportscanbeexpecteduntilthegeneraladvanceofinternalprosperityshallenablethepopulationtoextendtheirdemandforforeignmanufactures。Wehaveseenthatthepeasantryarecontentedwiththehome-madecottonstuffswhichtheyproducewithoutanexpenditureofmoney；andthehabitsoftheagriculturalclassesaresimple，andindependentofexternalaid。ItwillrequiremanyyearsbeforethecustomsoftheCypriotesshallbechangedbytheintercoursewithstrangers，andtheincreaseoftheirwealth，commencingfromthezeroofpoverty，mustbethebaseoffutureexpectations。Wegenerallyremarkintheadvancingdesiresofcommunitiesthatwomenexertapowerfulinfluenceinthedevelopmentofmanufactures。Thewholesome，andtoacertainextentcivilising，attentiontopersonalappearance，createsademandforarticlesofdressandotherlittlevanitieswhichencouragetrade，andbydegreestheimprovementineveryhouseholdexpandsintoanewbirthofexternalrelationswithforeigncountries，whichinducesanincreaseofimports。ThewomenofCyprusarecompletelysubjugatedtotheirhusbands，andalthoughexemptfromthecrueltyunfortunatelysoprevalentamongasimilarclassinEngland，theyareseldomindulgedintheloveoffinerywhichinourowncountryiscarriedtoanexcess。Thebaggytrousersandthehighhob-nailedbootsoftheCyprianVenuswillhardlyexcitetheambitionofBritishmanufacturers，andformanyyearsthefemaleswillremainintheirpresentposition。Therearealreadysoapmanufactoriesintheisland，andthefirstgroundworkforimprovementsinpersonalhabitswillbeensuredbytheirextension，beforetheexteriorfineriesofmorecivilisedcommunitiesshallbeintroduced。WemaythereforeomittheCyprianfemalefromtheclassthatwouldbenefittheislandcommercially，butshewillperformherdutyinasensibleandsimplemannerasagoodhousewife，andtherebyassistintheprosperityofherhusbandtheagriculturist。ThemorepainsthatwemaybestowuponanexaminationoftheresourcesofCyprus，themorecertainbecomestheconclusionthatthepresentandthefuturedependentirelyuponagriculturaldevelopment。

Thisfactispatenttoallwhocanpretendtoaknowledgeoftheisland，andthequestionwillnaturallyintrude，“WasCyprusoccupiedforagriculturalpurposes？”Ofcourseweknowitwasnot：butontheotherhand，ifweacknowledgethetruth，“thatitwasacceptedasastrategicalmilitarypoint，“itishighlydesirablethatthecountryshouldbeself-supporting，insteadof，likeMaltaandGibraltar，mainlydependentuponexternalsupplies。

IfCyprusbelongedtoEnglandoranyotherPower，itwouldbeavaluableacquisition。WehaveseenthatundertheTurkishadministrationitwasasmallmineofwealth，andremainsinthesamepositiontoitsrecentmasters。

Wepay96，000poundssterlingperannumtotheTurks，outofanassumedrevenueof170，000pounds。Therefore，withoutanytroubleorrisk，theTurkisreceiving3。25percent。interestuponthreemillions。ThisestablishesanunfortunateprecedentinthevaluationoftheislandshouldEnglandeventuallybecomeapurchaser。

IfCypruscan，withoutunduetaxation，affordarevenueof170，000

pounds，itispalpablethatalargemarginwouldbeavailableforthoseabsolutelynecessarypublicworks——irrigation，thecontrolofthePediasriver，road-making，harbour-works，bridges，extensionofforestsandguardians，andahostofminorimprovements，suchasdistrictschoolsfortheteachingofEnglish，&c。&c。Infact，ifweheldCypruswithoutpurchaseasaconqueredcountry，suchasCeylon，Mauritius，orotherofourcolonies，itwouldoccupytheextraordinarypositionofacolonythatcouldadvanceandpayitswayentirelybyitsownsurplusrevenue，withoutapublicloan！Thisisafactofgreatimportance——that，inspiteoftheusualTurkishmal-administration，theislandhasnodebt，butthatEnglandhasacknowledgedthesuccessoftheTurkishrulebypaying96，000poundsperannumastheacceptedsurplusrevenueofthismisgovernedisland！——whichholdsuponthesedataabetterfinancialconditionthananyofourowncolonies。

Ifthetotalgrossrevenueis170，000poundsayear，andwecanaffordtopay96，000poundstothePorte，andatthesametimeallowthehomegovernmenttoboastintheHouseofCommonsof“asurplus，“Cyprusisoneofthemostlucrativepositions，andtheTurkscanfairlyclaimasuccessinsteadofadmittingtheblameofmal-administration。

IftheTurksbymismanagementcanobtainanettrevenueof96，000poundsayear，howmuchshouldEnglandobtainbygoodmanagement？