第5章

Stubbs’’ConstitutionalHistory，’embracingasitdoesthewholeoftheMiddleAges，isnotdesignedtotraceoutsomeoneideaforthesakeofitsbeingnewortotakeupquestionswhichhadremainedunheededbyearlierscholars。Solidlearning，criticalcautionandaccuracyarethegreatrequirementsofsuchanundertaking，andeveryonewhohashadanythingtodowiththeBishopofOxford’spublicationsknowstowhatextenthisworkisdistinguishedbythesequalities。IfonemayspeakofamainideainsuchabookastheConstitutionalHistoryofapeople，Stubbs’

mainideaseemstobe，thattheEnglishConstitutionistheresultofadministrativeconcentrationintheageoftheNormansoflocalself-governmentformedintheageoftheSaxons。ThisconclusionisforeshadowedinPalgrave’swork，butwhatappearsthereasamerehypothesisandinconfusionwithallkindsofheterogeneouselements，comesoutinthelaterworkwiththeoverwhelmingforceofcarefulandimpartialinduction。Stubbs’

pointofviewisaGermanistone。ThebookbeginswithanestimateofTeutonicinfluenceinthedifferentcountriesofEurope，andEnglandistakeninonesenseasthemostperfectmanifestationoftheTeutonichistoricaltendency。TheinfluxofFrenchmenandFrenchideasunderWilliamtheConquerorandafterhimhadimportanteffectsinrousingnationalenergy，contributingtonationalunification，settlingtheformsofadministrationandjustice，butatbottomthereremainedtheTeutoniccharacterofthenation。The’ConstitutionalHistory’

approachesthequestionofthevillagecommunity，butitsobjectisstrictlylimitedtothebearingoftheproblemongeneralhistoryandtothetestimonyofdirectauthority。ItstartsfromthecommunityinlandasdescribedbyCaesarandTacitus，andnoticesthatSaxontimespresentonlyafewscatteredreferencestocommunalownership。Mostofthearablelandwasheldseparately，butthewoods，meadow，andpasturestillremainedintheownershipofvillagegroups。Thetownshipwithitsrightsanddutiesastopolice，justice，andhusbandrywasmodifiedbutnotdestroyedbyfeudalism。Thechangefrompersonalrelationstoterritorial，andfromthefreedomofthemassestotheirdependency，isalreadyverynoticeableintheSaxonperiod。TheNormanepochcompletedtheprocessbysubstitutingproprietaryrightsintheplaceofpersonalsubordinationandpoliticalsubjection。Stillevenafterconquestandlegaltheoryhadbeenovertheground，thecompactself-governmentofthetownshipiseasilydiscernibleunderthecrustofthemanorialsystem，andtheconditionofmedievalvillainspresentsmanytracesoforiginalfreedom。

Gneist’sworkissomewhatdifferentincolouringandcloselyconnectedwithadefinitepoliticaltheory，TocquevilleinFrancehasdonemosttodrawattentiontothevitalimportanceoflocalself-governmentinthedevelopmentofliberalinstitutions；andStubbs’historygoesfartodemonstrateTocqueville’sgeneralviewbyamasterlystatementastotheoriginsofEnglishinstitutions。InGneist’shandsthedoctrineofdecentralisationassumesaparticularshapebythefactthatitisconstructedonasocialfoundation；theGermanthinkerhasbeentryingallalongtoshowthattheEnglishinfluenceisnotoneofself-governmentonly，butofaristocraticalself-government。ThepartplayedbythegentryinlocalandcentralaffairsisthegreatpointofhistoricalinterestinGneist’seyes。EvenintheSaxonperiodhelaysstresschieflyontheearlyriseofgreatproperty，andthegreatimportanceof’Hlafords’insocialorganisation。Hepaysnoattentiontothevillagecommunity，andchieflycaresforthelandlord。ButstillevenGneistadmitstheoriginalpersonalfreedomofthegreatmassofthepeople，andhisanalysisoftheEnglishconditionisbasedontheassumption，thatitrepresentsonevariationofTeutonicdevelopment：thisgivesGneistaplaceamongtheGermanists，althoughhisviewsonparticularsubjectsdifferfromthoseofotherscholarsofthesameschool。

Itschiefrepresentativeshaveacquiredsuchacelebritythatitishardlynecessarytoinsistagain，thatexcellentworkhasbeendonebythemforthestudyofthepast。Butthedirectionoftheirworkhasbeenratherone-sided；itwasundertakeneitherfromthestandpointofpoliticalinstitutionsorfromthatofgeneralcultureandexternalgrowth；thefactsofagriculture，oftheevolutionofclasses，oflegalorganisationweretouchedupononlyassubsidiarytothemainobjectsofgeneralhistory。Andyet，evenfromthemiddleofthecentury，theattentionofEuropebeginstoturntowardsthoseveryfacts。The’masses’comeupwiththeirclaimsbehindthe’classes，’thesocialquestionemergesintheoryandinpractice，inreformandrevolution；

LiberalsandConservativeshavetoreckonwiththefactthatthegreatmajorityofthepeoplearemoreexcited，andmorelikelytobemovedbytheproblemsofworkandwagesthanbyproblemsofpoliticalinfluence。Theeverlasting，ever-humanstruggleforpowergetstobeconsideredchieflyinthelightofthedistributionofwealth；thedistributionofsocietyintoclassesandconditionsappearsastheconnectinglinkbetweentheeconomicalprocessandthepoliticalprocess。Thisgreatchangeintheaspectofmodernlifecouldnotbutreactpowerfullyontheaspectofhistoricalliterature。G。F。vonMaurerandHanssenstandoutasthemaininitiatorsofthenewmovementinourstudies。ThemanyvolumesdevotedbyG。F。MaurertothevillageandthetownofGermanyareplannedonabasisentirelydifferentfromthatofhispredecessors。Insteadofproceedingfromthewholetotheparts，andofusingsocialfactsmerelyasabackgroundtopoliticalhistory，heconcentrateseverythingroundtheanalysisoftheMark，astheelementaryorganisationforpurposesofhusbandryandownership。TheMarkisthustakenupnotinthevaguesenseandmannerinwhichitwastreatedbyKembleandhisfollowers；itisdescribedandexplainedonthestrengthofcopious，thoughnotverywellsifted，evidence。Ontheotherhand，Hanssen’smasterlyessaysonagrarianquestions，andespeciallyonthefield-systems，gaveanexampleofthewayinwhichworkwastobedoneastofactsofhusbandryproper。

Nasse’spamphletonthevillagecommunitymaybeconsideredasthefirstapplicationofthenewmethodsandnewresultstoEnglishhistory。Theimportanceofhislittlevolumecannoteasilybeoverrated：allsubsequentworkhashadtostartfromitsconclusions。

Nasse’spictureoftheancientEnglishagriculturalsystem，thoughdrawnfromscantysources，isaverydefiniteone。Mostofthelandisenclosedonlyduringthelatterpartoftheyear，andduringtherestoftheyearremainsinthehandsofthecommunity。Temporaryenclosuresriseupontheploughedfieldwhilethecropisgrowing；theirobject，however，isnottodividethelandbetweenneighboursbuttoprotectthecropagainstpasturinganimals；thestripsoftheseveralmembersofthetownshiplieintermixed，andtheircultivationisnotlefttotheviewsandinterestsoftheowners，butsettledbythecommunityaccordingtoageneralplan。Themeadowsarealsodividedintostrips，butthesechangehandsinacertainrotationdeterminedbylotorotherwise。Thepasturegroundremainsinthepossessionofthewholecommunity。Thenotionofprivateproperty，therefore，canbeappliedinthissystemonlytothehousesandclosesimmediatelyadjoiningthem。

Thenthefeudalepochdividesthecountryintomanors，aformwhichoriginatedattheendoftheSaxonperiodandspreadeverywhereinNormantimes。Thesoilofthemanorconsistsofdemesnelandsandtributarylands。Thesetwoclassesoflandsdonotquitecorrespondtothedistinctionbetweenlandcultivatedbythelordhimselfandsoilheldofhimbydependants；theremaybeleaseholdersonthedemesne，buttherethelordisalwaysfreetochangethemodeofcultivationandoccupation，whilehehasnorighttoalterthearrangementsonthetributaryportion。Thislastisdividedbetweenfreesocmenholdingoncertainconditions，villainsandcottagers。Thevillainsoccupyequalholdings；theirlegalconditionisaverylowone，althoughtheyareclearlydistinguishedfromslaves，andbelongmoretothesoilthantothelord。Thecottagershavehomesteadsandcrofts，butnoholdingsinthecommonfields；thewholegrouppresentsthematerialfromwhich，inprocessoftime，theagriculturallabourershavebeendeveloped。

Thecommonsystemofhusbandrymanifestsitselfinmanyways：

thesmallholdersclubtogetherforploughing；fourvirgatesoryardlandshavetoco-operateinordertostartaneight-oxenplough。Theservicesareoftenlaiduponthewholevillageandnotonseparatehouseholders；ontheotherhandthevillage，asawhole，entersintoagreementwiththelordaboutleasesorcommutationofservicesformoney。

Eachholdingisformedofstripswhichlieintermixedwiththecomponentpartsofotherholdingsindifferentfields，andthisfactisintimatelyconnectedwiththeprincipleofjointownership。Thewholesystembeginstobreakupinthethirteenthcentury，muchearlierthaninFranceorGermany。Assoonasservicesgetcommutedformoneyrents，itbecomesimpossibletoretainthelabouringpeopleinserfdom。Hiredlabourersandfarmerstaketheplaceofvillains，andthevillain’sholdingisturnedintoacopyholdandprotectedbylaw。Althoughthepassagetomodernformsbeginsthusearly，tracesoftheoriginalcommunalismmaybefoundeverywhere，evenintheeighteenthcentury。

Nasse’spamphletisbasedonacarefulstudyofauthorities，anddespiteitsshortnessmustbetreatedasaworkofscientificresearch。Butifallsubsequentworkershavetoreckonwithitinsettlingparticularquestions，generalconceptionshavebeenmorewidelyinfluencedbySirHenryMaine’slectures，whichdidnotaimatresearch，andhadinviewthebroadaspectsofthesubject。Theirpeculiarmethodiswellknowntobethatofcomparingfactsfromverydifferentenvironments——fromtheTeutonic，theCeltic，theHinduworld；Mainetriestosketchageneralprocesswhereotherpeopleonlyseeparticularconnexionsandspecialreasons。ThechapterswhichfallwithinthelineofourinquiryarebasedchieflyonacomparisonbetweenWesternEuropeandIndia。TheagrarianorganisationofmanypartsofIndiapresentsatthisveryday，infullworkandinallstagesofgrowthanddecay，thevillagecommunityofwhichsometracesarestillscatteredintherecordsofEurope。Thereandheretheprocessisinthemainthesame，thepassagefromcollectiveownershiptoindividualismisinfluencedbythesamegreatforces，notwithstandingallthedifferencesoftimeandplace。

Theoriginalformofagrarianarrangementisduetothesettlementofagroupoffreemen，whichsurrenderstoitsindividualmemberstheuseofarableland，meadows，pastureandwood，butretainstheownershipandthepowertocontrolandmodifytherightsofusingthecommonland。Therecanbenodoubtthatthelegaltheory，whichseesinthemodernrightsofcommonersmereencroachmentsuponthelord，carriesfeudalnotionsbackintotooearlyaperiod。

TherealquestionasconceivedbyMaineisthis——Bywhatmeanswasthefreevillagecommunityturnedintothemanorofthelord？Thepettystrugglesbetweentownshipsmusthaveledtothesubjugationofsomegroupsbyothers；ineachparticularvillagetheheadmanhadthemeanstousehisauthorityinordertoimprovehismaterialposition；andwhenafamilycontrivedtoretainanofficeinthehandsofitsmembersthisatoncegavemattersanaristocraticalturn。InWesternEuropeexternalcauseshadtoaccountforagreatdealinthegradualriseofterritoriallordship。WhenthebarbarianinvaderscameintocontactwithRomancivilisationandtookpossessionoftheprovincialsoil，theyfoundprivateownershipandgreatpropertyinfulldevelopment，andnaturallyfellundertheinfluenceoftheseaccomplishedfacts；theirvillagecommunitywasbrokenupandtransformedgraduallyintothemanorialsystem。

Mainetraceseconomichistoryfromanoriginallyfreecommunity；Nassetakestheexistenceofsuchacommunityforgranted。Thestatementsofonearetoogeneral，however，andsometimestoohypothetical，theotherhasinviewhusbandryproperratherthanthelegaldevelopmentofsocialclasses。

Maurer’stenets，towhichbothgoback，presentaverycoherentsysteminwhichallpartsholdwelltogether；buteachparttakenseparatelyisnotverywellgroundedonfact。Theone-sidedpreferencegiventooneelementdoesnotallowotherimportantelementstoappear；thewishtofindintheauthoritiessuitableargumentsforafavouritethesisleadstoaconfusionofmaterialsderivedfromdifferentepochs。Thesedefectsnaturallycalledforprotestandrectification；butthereactionagainstMaurer’steachinghasgonesofarandcomesfromsuchdifferentquarters，thatonehastolookforitsexplanationbeyondtherangeofhistoricalresearch。

LateyearshavewitnessedeverywhereinEuropeamovementofthoughtwhichwouldhavebeencalledreactionarysometwentyyearsago。Somepeoplearebecomingveryscepticalastoprincipleswhichwereheldsacredbyprecedinggenerations；atthesametimeelementslikelytobeslightedformerlyarecomingtothefrontingreatstrengthnowadays。Therehavebeenliberalsandconservativesatalltimes，butthedirectionoftheEuropeanmind，savingthereactionagainsttheFrenchRevolutionandNapoleon，hasbeensteadilyfavourabletotheliberaltendency。

Fortwocenturiesthegreatestthinkersandthecourseofgeneralopinionhavebeenstrivingforlibertyindifferentways，fortheemancipationofindividuals，andtheself-governmentofcommunities，andtherightsofmasses。Thisliberalcreedhasbeen，onthewhole，aneminentlyidealistone，assumingtheeasyperfectibilityofhumannature，thesoundcommonsenseofthemany，theregulatinginfluenceofconsciousnessoninstinct，theimmensevalueofhighpoliticalaspirationsfortheregenerationofmankind。Ineverysingleattemptatrealisingitshigh-flyinghopesthebrutalsideofhumannaturehasmadeitselffeltveryeffectually，andhasbecomeallthemoreconspicuousjustbyreasonoftheironicalcontrastbetweenaimsandmeans。Butthemovementasawholewascertainlyanidealistone，notonlyintheeighteenthbuteveninthenineteenthcentury，andthenecessaryrepressivetendencyappearedinclosealliancewithofficialism，withunthinkingtradition，andwiththeegotismofclassesandindividuals。Manyeventshavecontributedoflateyearstoraiseacurrentofindependentthoughtwhichhasgonefarincriticisingandstemmingbackliberaldoctrines，ifnotinsuppressingthem。ThebrilliantachievementsofhistoricalmonarchyinGermany，theridiculousmiserytowhichFrancehasbeenreducedbyconceitedandimpotentpoliticians，theexcessesofterroristnihilisminRussia，thegrowingsenseofacomingstruggleonquestionsofradicalreform——allthesefactshaveworkedtogethertogenerateafeelingwhichisfarfrombeingpropitioustoliberaldoctrines。Socialismitselfhasbeencontributingtoitdirectlybylayinganemphaticstressontheconditionsofmaterialexistence，andtreatingpoliticallifemerelyassubordinatetoeconomicaims。InEnglandtherepressivetendencyhasbeenfeltlessthanontheContinent，butevenheresomeoftheforemostmeninthecountryarebeginning，inconsequenceofsocialwell-knownevents，toaskthemselves：

Whitherarewedrifting？ThebookwhichbestillustratesthenewdirectionofthoughtisprobablyTaine’s’OriginesdelaFranceContemporaine。’Itishighlycharacteristic，bothinitsliteraryconnexionwiththeprofoundandmelancholyliberalismofTocqueville，andinitsalmostsavageonslaughtonrevolutionarylegendanddoctrine。