第19章

55。"Ourancestors，"saysCicero，ProCluentio，"wouldnotsufferanymanwhomthepartieshadnotagreedto，tobejudgeoftheleastpecuniaryaffair，muchlessofacitizen’sreputation。"

56。SeeinthefragmentsoftheServilian，Cornelian，andotherlaws，inwhatmannertheselawsappointedjudgesforthecrimestheyproposedtopunish。Theywereoftenpitcheduponbychoice，sometimesbylot，or，infine，bylotmixedtogetherwithchoice。

57。Seneca，DeBenefic。iii。7，infine。

58。SeeQuintilian，iv，p。54，infol。ed。，Paris，1541。

59。Leg。2ff。deorig。jur。Magistrateswhowerecalleddecemvirspresidedincourt，thewholeunderapr？tor’sdirection。

60。QuoniamdecapitecivisRomani，injussupopuliRomani，noneratpermissumconsulibusjusdicere。——SeePomponius，Leg。2，§6，ff。deorig。jur。

61。DionysiusHalicarnassus，v，p。322。

62。Thecomitiabycenturies。ThusManliusCapitolinuswastriedinthesecomitia。——Livy，Dec。1，vi。20。

63。Pomponius，inLeg。2，Dig。，deorig。jur。

64。SeeafragmentofUlpian，whogivesanotheroftheCornelianLaw：itistobemetwithintheCollationoftheMosaicandRomanLaws，tit。i，DeSicariisethomicidiis。

65。Thistookplace，especiallyinregardtocrimescommittedinItaly，whichweresubjectchieflytotheinspectionofthesenate。SeeLivy，Dec。1，ix，26，concerningtheconspiraciesatCapua。

66。ThiswasthecaseintheprosecutionforthemurderofPosthumius，intheyear340ofRome。SeeLivy，iv。50。

67。ThisjudgmentwaspassedintheyearofRome567。

68。Bookviii。

69。Cicero，inBrutus。

70。ThisisprovedfromLivy，bookxliii。46，whosaysthatHannibalrenderedtheirmagistracyannual。

71。Thesenatus—consultumswereinforceforthespaceofayear，thoughnotconfirmedbythepeople。——DionysiusHalicarnassusix，p。595；xi，p。735。

72。Intheyear630。

73。Capitecensosplerosque。——Sallust，DeBelloJugurth，84。

74。Fragmentofthisauthor，xxxvi，inthecollectionofConstantinePorphyrogenitus，OfVirtuesandVices[Historica]。

75。Fragmentofhishistory，takenfromtheextractOfVirtuesandVices[Historica]。

76。FragmentofthebookxxxivintheextractOfVirtuesandVices[Historica]。

77。PenesquosRom？tumjudiciaerant，atqueexequestriordinesolerentsortitojudiceseligiincausaPr？torumetProconsulum，quibuspostadministratamprovinciamdiesdictaerat。

78。Theymadetheiredictsuponenteringtheprovinces。

79。Bookv。19。Seealsoii，iii，iv，andv。

80。AftertheconquestofMacedoniatheRomanspaidnotaxes。

81。SpeechtakenfromTrogusPompeius，andrelatedbyJustin，xxxviii。

4。

82。SeetheorationsagainstVerres。

83。ItiswellknownwhatsortofatribunalwasthatofVarus，whichprovokedtheGermanstorevolt。

BookXII。OftheLawsThatFormPoliticalLiberty，inRelationtotheSubject1。IdeaofthisBook。Itisnotsufficienttohavetreatedofpoliticallibertyinrelationtotheconstitution；wemustexamineitlikewiseintherelationitbearstothesubject。

Wehaveobservedthatintheformercaseitarisesfromacertaindistributionofthethreepowers；butinthelatter，wemustconsideritinanotherlight。Itconsistsinsecurity，orintheopinionpeoplehaveoftheirsecurity。

Theconstitutionmayhappentobefree，andthesubjectnot。Thesubjectmaybefree，andnottheconstitution。Inthosecases，theconstitutionwillbefreebyright，andnotinfact；thesubjectwillbefreeinfact，andnotbyright。

Itisthedispositiononlyofthelaws，andevenofthefundamentallaws，thatconstituteslibertyinrelationtotheconstitution。Butasitregardsthesubject：manners，customs，orreceivedexamplesmaygiverisetoit，andparticularcivillawsmayencourageit，asweshallpresentlyobserve。

Further，asinmoststateslibertyismorecheckedordepressedthantheirconstitutionrequires，itispropertotreatoftheparticularlawsthatineachconstitutionareapttoassistorchecktheprincipleoflibertywhicheachstateiscapableofreceiving。

2。OftheLibertyoftheSubject。Philosophiclibertyconsistsinthefreeexerciseofthewill；oratleast，ifwemustspeakagreeablytoallsystems，inanopinionthatwehavethefreeexerciseofourwill。

Politicallibertyconsistsinsecurity，or，atleast，intheopinionthatweenjoysecurity。

Thissecurityisnevermoredangerouslyattackedthaninpublicorprivateaccusations。Itis，therefore，onthegoodnessofcriminallawsthatthelibertyofthesubjectprincipallydepends。

Criminallawsdidnotreceivetheirfullperfectionallatonce。Eveninplaceswherelibertyhasbeenmostsoughtafter，ithasnotbeenalwaysfound。Aristotle[1]informsusthatatCum？theparentsoftheaccusermightbewitnesses。SoimperfectwasthelawunderthekingsofRomethatServiusTulliuspronouncedsentenceagainstthechildrenofAncusMartius，whowerechargedwithhavingassassinatedtheking，hisfather—in—law。[2]UnderthefirstkingsofFrance，Clotariusmadealaw[3]thatnobodyshouldbecondemnedwithoutbeingheard；whichshowsthatacontrarycustomhadprevailedinsomeparticularcaseoramongsomebarbarouspeople。ItwasCharondasthatfirstestablishedpenaltiesagainstfalsewitnesses。[4]Whenthesubjecthasnofencetosecurehisinnocence，hehasnoneforhisliberty。

Theknowledgealreadyacquiredinsomecountries，orthatmaybehereafterattainedinothers，concerningthesurestrulestobeobservedincriminaljudgments，ismoreinterestingtomankindthananyotherthingintheworld。

Libertycanbefoundedonthepracticeofthisknowledgeonly；andsupposingastatetohavethebestlawsimaginableinthisrespect，apersontriedunderthatstate，andcondemnedtobehangedthenextday，wouldhavemuchmorelibertythanapashaenjoysinTurkey。

3。ThesameSubjectcontinued。Thoselawswhichcondemnamantodeathonthedepositionofasinglewitnessarefataltoliberty。Inreasonthereshouldbetwo，becauseawitnesswhoaffirms，andtheaccusedwhodenies，makeanequalbalance，andathirdmustinclinethescale。

TheGreeks[5]andRomans[6]requiredonevoicemoretocondemn：butourFrenchlawsinsistupontwo。TheGreekspretendthattheircustomwasestablishedbythegods；[7]butthismorejustlymaybesaidofours。

4。ThatLibertyisfavouredbytheNatureandProportionofPunishments。

Libertyisinperfectionwhencriminallawsderiveeachpunishmentfromtheparticularnatureofthecrime。Therearethennoarbitrarydecisions；thepunishmentdoesnotflowfromthecapriciousnessofthelegislator，butfromtheverynatureofthething；andmanusesnoviolencetoman。

Therearefoursortsofcrimes。Thoseofthefirstspeciesareprejudicialtoreligion，thesecondtomorals，thethirdtothepublictranquillity，andthefourthtothesecurityofthesubject。Thepunishmentsinflictedforthesecrimesoughttoproceedfromthenatureofeachofthesespecies。

Intheclassofcrimesthatconcernreligion，Irankonlythosewhichattackitdirectly，suchasallsimplesacrileges。Forastocrimesthatdisturbtheexerciseofit，theyareofthenatureofthosewhichprejudicethetranquillityorsecurityofthesubject，andoughttobereferredtothoseclasses。

Inordertoderivethepunishmentofsimplesacrilegesfromthenatureofthething，[8]itshouldconsistindeprivingpeopleoftheadvantagesconferredbyreligioninexpellingthemoutofthetemples，inatemporaryorperpetualexclusionfromthesocietyofthefaithful，inshunningtheirpresence，inexecrations，comminations，andconjurations。

Inthingsthatprejudicethetranquillityorsecurityofthestate，secretactionsaresubjecttohumanjurisdiction。ButinthosewhichoffendtheDeity，wherethereisnopublicact，therecanbenocriminalmatter，thewholepassesbetweenmanandGod，whoknowsthemeasureandtimeofHisvengeance。Nowifmagistrates，confoundingthings，shouldinquirealsointohiddensacrileges，thisinquisitionwouldbedirectedtoakindofactionthatdoesnotatallrequireit：thelibertyofthesubjectwouldbesubvertedbyarmingthezealoftimorousaswellasofpresumptuousconsciencesagainsthim。

ThemischiefarisesfromanotionwhichsomepeoplehaveentertainedofrevengingthecauseoftheDeity。ButwemusthonourtheDeityandleavehimtoavengehisowncause。And，indeed，werewetobedirectedbysuchanotion，wherewouldbetheendofpunishments？IfhumanlawsaretoavengethecauseofaninfiniteBeing，theywillbedirectedbyhisinfinity，andnotbytheweakness，ignorance，andcapriceofman。

Anhistorian[9]ofProvencerelatesafactwhichfurnishesuswithanexcellentdescriptionoftheconsequencesthatmayariseinweakcapacitiesfromthenotionofavengingtheDeity’scause。AJewwasaccusedofhavingblasphemedagainsttheVirginMary；anduponconvictionwascondemnedtobeflayedalive。Astrangespectaclewasthenexhibited：gentlemenmasked，withknivesintheirhands，mountedthescaffold，anddroveawaytheexecutioner，inordertobetheavengersthemselvesofthehonouroftheblessedVirgin。Idonotherechoosetoanticipatethereflectionsofthereader。

Thesecondclassconsistsofthosecrimeswhichareprejudicialtomorals。Suchistheviolationofpublicorprivatecontinence，thatis，ofthepolicedirectingthemannerinwhichthepleasureannexedtotheconjunctionofthesexesistobeenjoyed。Thepunishmentofthosecrimesoughttobealsoderivedfromthenatureofthething；theprivationofsuchadvantagesassocietyhasattachedtothepurityofmorals，fines，shame，necessityofconcealment，publicinfamy，expulsionfromhomeandsociety，and，infine，allsuchpunishmentsasbelongtoacorrectivejurisdiction，aresufficienttorepressthetemerityofthetwosexes。Ineffectthesethingsarelessfoundedonmalicethanoncarelessnessandself—neglect。

Wespeakhereofnonebutcrimeswhichrelatemerelytomorals，forastothosethatarealsoprejudicialtothepublicsecurity，suchasrapes，theybelongtothefourthspecies。

Thecrimesofthethirdclassarethosewhichdisturbthepublictranquillity。Thepunishmentsoughtthereforetobederivedfromthenatureofthething，andtobeinrelationtothistranquillity；suchasimprisonment，exile，andotherlikechastisementsproperforreclaimingturbulentspirits，andobligingthemtoconformtotheestablishedorder。

Iconfinethosecrimesthatinjurethepublictranquillitytothingswhichimplyabareoffenceagainstthepolice；forastothosewhichbydisturbingthepublicpeaceattackatthesametimethesecurityofthesubject，theyoughttoberankedinthefourthclass。

Thepunishmentsinflicteduponthelattercrimesaresuchasareproperlydistinguishedbythatname。Theyareakindofretaliation，bywhichthesocietyrefusessecuritytoamemberwhohasactuallyorintentionallydeprivedanotherofhissecurity。Thesepunishmentsarederivedfromthenatureofthething，foundedonreason，anddrawnfromtheverysourceofgoodandevil。Amandeservesdeathwhenhehasviolatedthesecurityofthesubjectsofarastodeprive，orattempttodeprive，anothermanofhislife。Thispunishmentofdeathistheremedy，asitwere，ofasicksociety。Whenthereisabreachofsecuritywithregardtoproperty，theremaybesomereasonsforinflictingacapitalpunishment：butitwouldbemuchbetter，andperhapsmorenatural，thatcrimescommittedagainstthesecurityofpropertyshouldbepunishedwiththelossofproperty；andthisought，indeed，tobethecaseifmen’sfortuneswerecommonorequal。Butasthosewhohavenopropertyoftheirownaregenerallythereadiesttoattackthatofothers，ithasbeenfoundnecessary，insteadofapecuniary，tosubstituteacorporal，punishment。

AllthatIhavehereadvancedisfoundedinnature，andextremelyfavourabletothelibertyofthesubject。

5。OfcertainAccusationsthatrequireparticularModerationandPrudence。Itisanimportantmaxim，thatweoughttobeverycircumspectintheprosecutionofwitchcraftandheresy。Theaccusationofthesetwocrimesmaybevastlyinjurioustoliberty，andproductiveofinfiniteoppression，ifthelegislatorknowsnothowtosetboundstoit。Forasitdoesnotdirectlypointataperson’sactions，butathischaracter，itgrowsdangerousinproportiontotheignoranceofthepeople；andthenamanissuretobealwaysindanger，becausethemostexceptionalconduct，thepurestmorals，andtheconstantpracticeofeverydutyinlifearenotasufficientsecurityagainstthesuspicionofhisbeingguiltyofthelikecrimes。

UnderManuelComnenus，theProtestator[10]wasaccusedofhavingconspiredagainsttheemperor，andofhavingemployedforthatpurposesomesecretsthatrendermeninvisible。Itismentionedinthelifeofthisemperor[11]thatAaronwasdetected，ashewasporingoverabookofSolomon’s，thereadingofwhichwassufficienttoconjureupwholelegionsofdevils。Nowbysupposingapowerinwitchcrafttorousetheinfernalspiritstoarms，peoplelookuponamanwhomtheycallasorcererasthepersonintheworldmostlikelytodisturbandsubvertsociety；andofcoursetheyaredisposedtopunishhimwiththeutmostseverity。

Buttheirindignationincreaseswhenwitchcraftissupposedtohavethepowerofsubvertingreligion。ThehistoryofConstantinople[12]informsusthatinconsequenceofarevelationmadetoabishopofamiraclehavingceasedbecauseofthemagicpracticesofacertainperson，boththatpersonandhissonwereputtodeath。Onhowmanysurprisingthingsdidnotthissinglecrimedepend？Thatrevelationsshouldnotbeuncommon，thatthebishopshouldbefavouredwithone，thatitwasreal，thattherehadbeenamiracleinthecase，thatthismiraclehadceased，thattherewasamagicart，thatmagiccouldsubvertreligion，thatthisparticularpersonwasamagician，and，infine，thathehadcommittedthatmagicact。

TheEmperorTheodorusLascarisattributedhisillnesstowitchcraft。

Thosewhowereaccusedofthiscrimehadnootherresourceleftthantohandleared—hotironwithoutbeinghurt。ThusamongtheGreeksapersonoughttohavebeenasorcerertobeabletoclearhimselfoftheimputationofwitchcraft。Suchwastheexcessoftheirstupiditythattothemostdubiouscrimeintheworldtheyjoinedthemostdubiousproofsofinnocence。

UnderthereignofPhiliptheLong，theJewswereexpelledfromFrance，beingaccusedofhavingpoisonedthespringswiththeirlepers。Soabsurdanaccusationoughttomakeusdoubtallthosethatarefoundedonpublichatred。

Ihavenothereassertedthatheresyoughtnottobepunished；Isaidonlythatweoughttobeextremelycircumspectinpunishingit。

6。OftheCrimeagainstNature。GodforbidthatIshouldhavetheleastinclinationtodiminishthepublichorroragainstacrimewhichreligion，morality，andcivilgovernmentequallycondemn。Itoughttobeproscribed，wereitonlyforitscommunicatingtoonesextheweaknessesoftheother，andforleadingpeoplebyascandalousprostitutionoftheiryouthtoanignominiousoldage。WhatIshallsayconcerningitwillinnowaydiminishitsinfamy，beinglevelledonlyagainstthetyrannythatmayabusetheveryhorrorweoughttohaveagainstthevice。

Asanaturalcircumstanceofthiscrimeissecrecy，therearefrequentinstancesofitshavingbeenpunishedbylegislatorsuponthedepositionofachild。Thiswasopeningaverywidedoortocalumny。"Justinian，"

saysProcopius，[13]"publishedalawagainstthiscrime；heorderedaninquirytobemadenotonlyagainstthosewhowereguiltyofit，aftertheenactingofthatlaw，butevenbefore。Thedepositionofasinglewitness，sometimesofachild，sometimesofaslave，wassufficient，especiallyagainstsuchaswererich，andagainstthoseofthegreenfaction。"

Itisveryoddthatthesethreecrimes，witchcraft，heresy，andthatagainstnature，ofwhichthefirstmighteasilybeprovednottoexist；

thesecondtobesusceptibleofaninfinitenumberofdistinctions，interpretations，andlimitations；thethirdtobeoftenobscureanduncertain——itisveryodd，Isay，thatthesethreecrimesshouldamongstusbepunishedwithfire。

Imayventuretoaffirmthatthecrimeagainstnaturewillnevermakeanygreatprogressinsociety，unlesspeoplearepromptedtoitbysomeparticularcustom，asamongtheGreeks，wheretheyouthsofthatcountryperformedalltheirexercisesnaked；asamongstus，wheredomesticeducationisdisused；asamongsttheAsiatics，whereparticularpersonshaveagreatnumberofwomenwhomtheydespise，whileotherscanhavenoneatall。Lettherebenocustomspreparatorytothiscrime；letit，likeeveryotherviolationofmorals，beseverelyproscribedbythecivilmagistrate；andnaturewillsoondefendorresumeherrights。

Nature，thatfond，thatindulgentparent，hasstrewnherpleasureswithabounteoushand，andwhileshefillsuswithdelights，shepreparesus，bymeansofourissue，inwhomweseeourselves，asitwere，reproduced——shepreparesus，Isay，forfuturesatisfactionsofamoreexquisitekindthanthoseverydelights。

7。OftheCrimeofHighTreason。ItisdeterminedbythelawsofChinathatwhosoevershowsanydisrespecttotheemperoristobepunishedwithdeath。Astheydonotmentioninwhatthisdisrespectconsists，everythingmayfurnishapretexttotakeawayaman’slife，andtoexterminateanyfamilywhatsoever。

Twopersonsofthatcountrywhowereemployedtowritethecourtgazette，havinginsertedsomecircumstancesrelatingtoacertainfactthatwasnottrue，itwaspretendedthattotellalieinthecourtgazettewasadisrespectshowntothecourt，inconsequenceofwhichtheywereputtodeath。[14]Aprinceofthebloodhavinginadvertentlymadesomemarkonamemorialsignedwiththeredpencilbytheemperor，itwasdeterminedthathehadbehaveddisrespectfullytothesovereign；

whichoccasionedoneofthemostterriblepersecutionsagainstthatfamilythateverwasrecordedinhistory。[15]

Ifthecrimeofhightreasonbeindeterminate，thisaloneissufficienttomakethegovernmentdegenerateintoarbitrarypower。IshalldescantmorelargelyonthissubjectwhenIcometotreat[16]ofthecompositionoflaws。

8。OftheMisapplicationoftheTermsSacrilegeandHighTreason。Itislikewiseashockingabusetogivetheappellationofhightreasontoanactionthatdoesnotdeserveit。Byanimperiallaw[17]itwasdecreedthatthosewhocalledinquestiontheprince’sjudgment，ordoubtedthemeritofsuchashehadchosenforapublicoffice，shouldbeprosecutedasguiltyofsacrilege。[18]Surelyitwasthecabinetcouncilandtheprince’sfavouriteswhoinventedthatcrime。Byanotherlaw，itwasdeterminedthatwhosoevermadeanyattempttoinjuretheministersandofficersbelongingtothesovereignshouldbedeemedguiltyofhightreason，asifhehadattemptedtoinjurethesovereignhimself。[19]

Thislawisowingtotwoprinces[20]remarkablefortheirweakness——

princeswhowereledbytheirministersasflocksbyshepherds；princeswhowereslavesinthepalace，childreninthecouncil，strangerstothearmy；princes，infine，whopreservedtheirauthorityonlybygivingitawayeveryday。Someofthosefavouritesconspiredagainsttheirsovereigns。Nay，theydidmore，theyconspiredagainsttheempire——

theycalledinbarbarousnations；andwhentheemperorswantedtostoptheirprogressthestatewassoenfeebledastobeunderanecessityofinfringingthelaw，andofexposingitselftothecrimeofhightreasoninordertopunishthosefavourites。

AndyetthisistheverylawwhichthejudgeofMonsieurdeCinq—Marsbuiltupon[21]whenendeavouringtoprovethatthelatterwasguiltyofthecrimeofhightreasonforattemptingtoremoveCardinalRichelieufromtheministry。Hesays："Crimesthataimatthepersonsofministersaredeemedbytheimperialconstitutionsofequalconsequencewiththosewhicharelevelledagainsttheemperor’sownperson。Aministerdischargeshisdutytohisprinceandtohiscountry：toattempt，therefore，toremovehim，isendeavouringtodeprivetheformeroneofhisarms，[22]andthelatterofpartofitspower。"Itisimpossibleforthemeanesttoolsofpowertoexpressthemselvesinmoreservilelanguage。

ByanotherlawofValentinian，Theodosius，andArcadius，[23]falsecoinersaredeclaredguiltyofhightreason。Butisnotthisconfoundingtheideasofthings？Isnottheveryhorrorofhightreasondiminishedbygivingthatnametoanothercrime？

9。ThesameSubjectcontinued。PaulinushavingwrittentotheEmperorAlexanderthat"hewaspreparingtoprosecuteforhightreasonajudgewhohaddecidedcontrarytohisedict，"theemperoranswered，"thatunderhisreigntherewasnosuchthingasindirecthightreason。"[24]

Faustinianwrotetothesameemperorthatashehadswornbytheprince’slifenevertopardonhisslave，hefoundhimselftherebyobligedtoperpetuatehiswrath，lestheshouldincurtheguiltofl？samajestas。Uponwhichtheemperormadeanswer，"Yourfearsaregroundless，[25]andyouareastrangertomyprinciples。"

Itwasdeterminedbyasenatus—consultum[26]thatwhosoevermelteddownanyoftheemperor’sstatueswhichhappenedtoberejectedshouldnotbedeemedguiltyofhightreason。TheEmperorsSeverusandAntoninuswrotetoPontius[27]thatthosewhosoldunconsecratedstatuesoftheemperorshouldnotbechargedwithhightreason。ThesameprinceswrotetoJuliusCassianusthatifapersoninflingingastoneshouldbychancestrikeoneoftheemperor’sstatuesheshouldnotbeliabletoaprosecutionforhightreason。[28]TheJulianlawrequiresthissortoflimitations；forinvirtueofthislawthecrimeofhightreasonwaschargednotonlyuponthosewhomelteddowntheemperor’sstatues，butlikewiseonthosewhocommittedanysuchlikeaction，[29]whichmadeitanarbitrarycrime。Whenanumberofcrimesofl？samajestashadbeenestablished，theywereobligedtodistinguishtheseveralsorts。HenceUlpian，thecivilian，aftersayingthattheaccusationofl？samajestasdidnotdiewiththecriminal，addsthatthisdoesnotrelatetoallthetreasonableactsestablishedbytheJulianlaw，[30]butonlytothatwhichimpliesanattemptagainsttheempire，oragainsttheemperor’slife。

10。ThesameSubjectcontinued。TherewasalawpassedinEnglandunderHenryVIII，bywhichwhoeverpredictedtheking’sdeathwasdeclaredguiltyofhightreason。Thislawwasextremelyvague；theterrorofdespoticpowerissogreatthatitrecoilsuponthosewhoexerciseit。