第3章

Sinceeffectiveaccesstolargemarketsimpliesafairlylargebusiness，theeconomyofriskbecomesoneoftheeconomiesofcapitalism，anditscalculationachiefbranchoftheemployer"sskill。Thewatchingofthemarketsoastoreducethewasteofmisdirectedproductionisthemostdelicateoftheintellectualactivitiesofmostmanagers。Ittakeshimoutsidethescopeofhisownbusinessandthepresentprocessofproduction，toconsiderthewholeconditionofthetradeinthepresentandtheprobablefuture。Thesecalculationsandactsofjudgmentissuingfromthebrainofbusinessmanagersarethepsychicalaspectofthewholestructureofmarketsandofthetradeandtrafficarrangementswhichgivesuchunityandorderasarevisibleinwhatistermedtheindustrialsystem。

Thus，notmerelyonthefinancialbutonthecommercialside，industryisperceivedtobeagreatfabricofbeliefsanddesires。Though，asweshallrecognise，indealingwithlabour，andwithsaving，risk-takingisbynomeansconfinedtoemployersandentrepreneurs，itswideroperationsbelongtothespeculativeskillwhichcomesunderthegeneralheadofabilityofmanagement。Inthepsychologicalinterpretationofindustrythisfunctionoftheentrepreneurisofquitecrucialsignificance，cooperatingeverywherewiththemoreabstractcalculationsoffinanciersindirectingtheamounts，kinds，anddirections，ofthevariouscurrentsofindustrialenergywhichmoveinthebusinessworld。Sinceitinvolvesaconstantuseoftheconstructiveimaginationintheinterpretationoftheplayofchangingmotivesinmanyminds，andtheforecastingoffutureconditionswhichcanneverbeamererepetitionofthepast，the"creative"facultyobtainshereitshighestexpression。Itisnotfornothingthatthegreatmodernmastereitheroffinanceorindustryisaccreditedwithsomequalityofimaginativepowerakintothatoftheartist。This，however，mustinnotafewinstancesimply，notmerelythegeniusoftheprophet，butthatoftheskilledmanipulatorofeconomicmaterialandopportunity，whohelpstosecuretheduefulfilmentofthepropheciesuponwhichhestakeshisfaith。

CHAPTERV:THEHUMANCOSTSOF

LABOUR

§；1。TheclassicalPoliticalEconomyofthiscountrygavetoLabouraroleofsupremeimportanceintheproductionofwealth。FromAdamSmith，Ricardo，andotherauthoritativeexponentsofthenew"science"manypassagescanbecitedtosupportthethesisthatlabourersaretheonlyproducers。

NordoesitappearthatintheseutterancesLabourwasusuallyintendedtoincludetheservicesoforganisationandmanagementorotherintellectualactivities。WealthisbaldlyattributedtoLabourinthesensethatthemanuallabour，whichextractsrawmaterialsfromtheearth，shapesandcomposesthem，andcarriesthemfromoneplacetoanother，alonecountsasacostofproduction。ItisnaturalenoughthatthescientificsocialismofEuropeshouldhaveacceptedandenforcedthisdoctrine。Thoughthemoreintelligentsocialistsand"labourmen"admitthenecessaryworkofsuperintendenceandothermentalworkasusefulandproductive，thematerialismprevalentinthebusinessworldtendstorelegatetoaquitesecondaryplaceallthehigherformsofintellectualandmoralactivity。

Itwasuponthewhole，indeed，asoundinstinctwhichthusledtheearlytheoriststouselanguagewhichattributedtomanuallabourtherealburdenofthe"costs"ofproduction。Forcloserinvestigationatteststheforceofthedistinctionbetweentheproductiveenergygivenoutbytheintellectual，thedirecting，andadministrativeclassesontheonehand，andbythelabouring-classesontheother。Moreover，thesocialaswellastheeconomiccleavageissodistinctiveafeatureofourlifethatitwouldbeinconvenienttoignoreit。Thecleavagewillbefoundtocorrespondprettyaccuratelytothedistinctionbetweenthecreativeandtheimitativefunctionswhichweprovisionallyadoptedforastartingpointinouranalysis。

Formostoftheproductiveenergygivenoutbytheartistic，inventive，professional，official，andmanagerialclasses，whichhavepassedunderoursurvey，isseentobeinlargemeasurecreative，varied，interesting，andpleasurable。

Nowinthelabourofthewage-earningclassesthesequalitiesaregenerallylacking。Alikeinmotivesandinmethods，thecontrastisclearlymarked。

Themindoftheartistortheinventor，evenoftheprofessionalmanortheadministrator，isoccupiedwiththeworkinhand，asanobjectofinterestandofdesirableachievement。Thenatureoftheworkandtheconditionsofremunerationconducetofixhisimmediatethoughtsandfeelingsontheperformanceofhiswork。Withthelaboureritisdifferent。Theconditionsofmostlabouraresuchthatthelabourerfindslittlescopeforthoughtandemotionalinterestintheworkitself。Itsdueperformanceishardlyanendtohim，butonlyameanstoalivelihoodconsistingintheconsumablecommoditiesgotinpaymentforhislabour。

Butthevitaldistinctionisinthenatureandmethodoftheworkdone。

Whereastheartisticorinventive，oreventheprofessionalman，isconstantlydoingsomethingnew，thelabourercontinuallyrepeatsthesameactorsetofacts，inordertoproduceanumberofsimilarproducts。Thesuccessofmostlabourconsistsintheexactitudeandpacewithwhichthisrepetitioncanbecarriedon。Themachine-tenderisthetypicalinstance。Tofeedthesamemachinerywiththesamequantityofthesamematerialatthesamepace，soastoturnoutanendlessnumberofpreciselysimilararticles，istheabsoluteantithesisofart。Itisoftensaidthatthemanwhofeedssuchamachinetendstobecomeasautomaticasthemachineitself。This，however，isbutahalf-truth。Ifthetendercouldbecomeasautomaticasthemachinehetended，ifhecouldcompletelymechanisealittlesectionofhisfaculties，itmightgoeasierwithhim。Butthemaintrendoflifeinthemanfightsagainstthemechanisingtendencyofhiswork，andthisstruggleentailsaheavycost。Forhismachineimposesarepetitionofthesamemuscularandnervousactionuponabeingwhosemusclesandnervousresourcesarecontinuallychanging。Themachine，fedconstantlywiththesamesupplyoffuel，geareduptoasingleconstantpaceofmovement，forcedbyunchangingstructuretotheperformanceofthesameoperation，frictionanderrorreducedtoanalmostnegligibleminimum，worksthroughthelongestdaywithauniformexpenditureofpower。Themachine-tenderisanorganism，fedatsomewhatirregularintervalswithdifferentamountsandsortsoffood，theassimilationofwhichisalsodiscontinuous，andincapableofmaintainingintactandconstantinitsquantitythemuscularandnervoustissueandtheaccompanyingcontractionswhichconstitutethephysicalsupplyof"work"。Thisorganismhasalsomanyotherstructuresandfunctions，physicalandmental，whoseactivitiesandneedsgetinthewayoftheautomaticactivityofmachine-tending。Thustheworkercannotsucceedinbecomingaltogetheramachine-tendingautomaton。Hewillnotalwaysexactlyrepeathimself，andhisattempttodosoinvolvestwosetsoforganiccostsorwastes，duetothefactthat，thoughhislabourtriestomakehimaspecialisedmechanism，heremainsageneralisedorganism。

Sofaraslabourconsistsinspecialisedroutine，absorbingthemaincurrentofproductiveenergy，itistheenemyoforganichealth。Itishostileintwoways，first，indenyingtomanopportunityfortheexerciseofhisotherproductivefaculties，secondly，inovertaxinganddegradingbyservilerepetitionthesinglefacultythatisemployed。

Astheartistpresentsthesupremeexampleofcreativework，withaminimumofhumancostsandamaximumofhumanutility，sothemachine-tenderpresentsthesupremeexampleofimitativework，withamaximumofhumancostsandaminimumofhumanutility。

§；2。Someparticularconsiderationofthesecostsofmachine-tendingwillbethebestapproachtoamoregeneralsurveyofthehumancostsoflabour。

TheindictmentofthedominionofmachinerybyRuskin，Morris，andotherhumanistreformers，wasprimarilybaseduponthedegradationoftheworker"smanhoodbydenyinghimtheconditionsofgoodwork。"Itisasadaccount，"saidRuskin，"foramantogiveofhimselfthathehasspenthislifeinopeningavalve，andnevermadeanythingbuttheeighteenthpartofapin。"But，importantasisthischargeofdegradedandjoylesswork，wemustbeginouranalysisofthecostsofmechanicalorfactorylabouratalowerlevel。

Fromthegreatbodyofthefactorylabourwhichgoestotheprovisionofournationalincome，thefirstgreathumancostthatemergesistheburdenofinjuriousfatiguewhichresultsfrommuscularornervousoverstrain，andfromtheotherphysicalandmoralinjurieswhicharethenaturalaccompanimentsofthisoverstrain。

Modernphysiologyandpathologyhavedonemuchtogiveplainmeaningstothesecosts。Physicalfatigueisnotofnecessityaninjurytothebody，norisallfeelingoffatigueapain。Theideallycorrectconductoftheorganismmay，indeed，appeartopreserveanexactandacontinuousbalancebetweentheanabolicandthecatabolic，thenutritionofcelllifeandtheexpenditureinfunction。SirMichaelFostergivesthefollowingclassicaldescriptionofthisprocess。1

"Didwepossesssomeopticaidwhichshouldovercomethegrossnessofourvision，sothatwemightwatchthedanceofatomsinthisdoubleprocessofmakingandunmakinginthehumanbody，weshouldseethecommonplacelivingthingswhicharebroughtbytheblood，andwhichwecallthefood，caughtupintoandmadepartofthemolecularwhorlsofthelivingmuscle，linkedtogetherforawhileintheintricatefiguresofthedanceoflife；

andthenweshouldseehow，loosinghands，theyslippedbackintotheblood，asdead，inert，used-upmatter。Ineverytinyblockofmusclethereisapartwhichisreallyalive，therearepartswhicharebecomingalive，therearepartswhichhavebeenalivebutarenowdyingordead；thereisanupwardrushfromthelifelesstotheliving，adownwardrushfromthelivingtothedead。Thisisalwaysgoingon，whetherthemusclebequietandatrest，orwhetheritbeactiveandmoving。Someofthecapitaloflivingmaterialisalwaysbeingspent，changedintodeadwaste，someofthenewfoodisalwaysbeingraisedintolivingcapital。

"Thusnutritivematerialsarecarriedbythebloodtothetissues，andthedeadmaterialsofused-upandbroken-uptissuesarecarriedawayfordestructionorejection。Undernormalconditionsofhealthyactivitythismetabolicbalanceispreservedbythealternationofworkandrepose，thetissueandenergybuiltupoutoffoodduringperiodsofrestformingafundforexpenditureduringperiodsofwork，whilethesameperiodsofrestenablethedestructiveandevacuativeprocessestogetridofanyaccumulationofdeadtissueduetothepreviousperiodofwork。Abnormallyintenseorundulyprolongedactivityofanyportionofthebodyusesuptissuesofastthatitsdeadmaterialcannotbegotridofattheproperpace。Itaccumulatesinthebloodorinthekidneys，liverorlungs，andoperatesasapoisonthroughoutthewholesystem。Over-fatiguethusmeanspoisoningtheorganism。

"Thepoisonsaremoreandmoreheaped-up，poisoningthemuscles，poisoningthebrain，poisoningtheheart，poisoningatlasttheblooditself，startingintheintricatemachineryofthebodynewpoisonsinadditiontothemselves。

Thehuntedhare，runtodeath，diesnotbecauseheischokedforwantofbreath，norbecausehisheartstandsstill，itsstoreofenergyhavinggivenout，butbecauseapoisonedbloodpoisonshisbrain，poisonshiswholebody。"2

TheItalianbiologistMossohasdemonstratedthatthedepressingeffectoffatigueisnotconfinedtothelocalcentrewhereitisproduced，butiscarriedtoallpartsofthebody。Whenthebloodofadogfatiguedbycontinuedrunningisinjectedintothevesselsofasounddog，thelatterexhibitsallthesignsoffatigue。Theinabilityofthesystemtodisposeoftheused-uptissue，whichthusaccumulatesandpoisonsthesystem，isoneinjuriousfactorinfatigue。Anotheristheunduedepletionofthestoresofglycogenandoxygen，whichtheorganismprovidesfortheoutputofmuscularactivity。Glycogenisacompoundofcarbon，hydrogen，andoxygenmadebymuscletissueoutofthesugarordextrinesuppliedtoitbytheblood。"Thestoredglycogenofthemuscleskeepsunitingchemicallywiththeoxygenoftheblood。Theglycogenisbrokendownintoasimplerchemicalform，givingoffthegascarbondioxideandotheracidwastes，andreleasingheatandmechanicalenergyintheprocess。Withthereleasedenergycontractionofthemusclestakesplaceandhenceultimatelytheindustriallabourwhichisourspecialtheme。"3

"Glycogenis，asitwere，storedforuse。Itisalwaysbeingreplenished，alwaysbeingdepleted……Butwhenthemuscleisactiveandcontractsenergetically，thereisarunuponourglycogen。Itisusedupfasterthanitisbuiltinmuscle。Theglycogenisspentsorapidlythatthereisnottimefortheblood-streamtobringbacktothetissuethepotentialmaterialforitsrepair。"4Thoughtheliverfurnishesanextrastoreofglycogen，thistoomaybedepletedbyunduemuscularactivity。

"Thuswehavereachedtheotherfundamentalfactorinfatigue——theconsumptionoftheenergy-yieldingsubstanceitself。Notonlydoestissuemanufacturepoisonforitselfintheveryactofliving，castingoffchemicalwastesintothecirclingbloodstream；notonlyarethesewastespouredintothebloodfasterwithincreasedexertion，cloggingthemusclemoreandmorewithitsownnoxiousproducts；but，finally，thereisadepletionoftheverymaterialfromwhichenergyisobtained。Thecatabolicprocessisinexcessoftheanabolic。Inexhaustion，theorganismisforcedliterallyto"useitselfup。""5

§；3。Somuchforthephysiologicalmeaningofmuscularfatigue。

Closelyassociatedwithmuscularfatigueisnervousfatigue。Foreveryvoluntarymuscularactionreceivesitsstimulusfromanervouscentre。

Thoughthenatureofthisnervousenergy，accumulatedinthecentralnervoussystemanddistributedinstimuli，isnotwellunderstood，itseconomyisgravelydisturbedbyconductinvolvingheavymuscularfatigue，aswellasbyworkofamentalkindinvolvingheavydrainsonitsresources。A

processofbuildingup，storage，anddissipationofnervetissueandenergy-yieldingmaterial，correspondingtothatwhichwehavetracedformuscletissue，mustbeacceptedastakingplace。Fatigueofthenervoussystemwillthusbeattendedbyasimilaraccumulationofpoisonouswasteproducts，andanexcessiveconsumptionofsubstancesneededforthemaintenanceofnervousactivity。

Thoughphysiologistsarenotagreedastohowandwhenfatigueactsonthenervouscells，thereisnoquestionoftherealityandoftheimportanceofthisinjuryofexcessiveworkto"theadministrativeinstrumentoftheindividual"which"directs"controlsandharmonisestheworkofthepartsoftheorganicmachineandgivesunitytothewhole。"

Stillconfiningourattentiontopurelyphysicalconditions，welearnthatworkdoneinastateofmuscularfatigueinvolvesanincreaseofnervouseffort。

"Mossoshowedthatamuchstrongerelectricstimulusisrequiredtomakeaweariedmusclecontractthanonewhichisrested。Hedevisedanapparatus，theponometer，whichrecordsthecurveofnervouseffortrequiredtoaccomplishmuscularactionasfatigueincreases。Heshowedthatthenervecentresarecompelledtosupplyaneverstrongerstimulustofatiguedmuscles。"6

ProfessorTrevesatTurinthrowsfurtherlightupontherelationsbetweenthemuscularandthenervouseconomy。Itiswellknownthatinmuscularactivitythereisanopeningperiodduringwhichefficiency，orpracticalresponsetonervousstimulus，increases。Beforefatiguebeginstosetin，themuscleappearstogainstrength，itsworkingpowerbeingactuallyaugmented。

Thisperiodofmaximumefficiencycontinuesforanappreciabletime，thenfatigueadvancesmoreandmoreuntilmuscularcontractionrefusesanylongertorespondtoevenaheightenednervousstimulus。This，ofcourse，isalsoanepitomeofthecourseoforganiclifeitself，itsrisetowardsmaturity，itslevelofmaximumpoweranditsdecline。

Nowtrainingorpracticecannotoriouslyaffectthisnaturaleconomy。

Themuscularsystem，orsomepartofit，canbypracticeaccommodateitselftoincreasingquantitiesoffatigue-poisons，andcandrawfromthegeneralorganicfundalargerquantityofmaterialforrepairoflocalmusculartissueandenergy。Butithaslongbeenrecognisedthatsomerealdangersattachtothisexcessivespecialisationofmuscularactivities。Thepathologicalnatureofover-traininginathleticshasitsplaincounterpartinindustry。

This，accordingtoProfessorTreves，liesinthefailureofthesupplyofnervousenergytoriseinproportiontotherequirementsforthishigherpressureuponthemusculartissues。

"Accordingtomyexperience，ithasnotbeenfoundthattraininghasasfavourableaneffectupon[nervous]energyasuponmuscularstrength……

Thisfactexplainswhymusculartrainingcannotgobeyondcertainlimitsandwhyathletesareoftenbrokendownbytheconsequencesofover-exertion。

Andthisfactteachesalsothepracticalnecessityofpreventingwomen，children，andevenadultmenfrombecomingsubjectedtolabour，which，indeed，agradualmusculartrainingmaymakepossible，butatthepriceofanexcessivelossofnervousenergywhichisnotbetrayedbyanyobviousorimmediatesymptoms，eitherobjectiveorsubjective。"7

Aseriesofexperimentshasbeendirectedtothemoredetailedstudyoftherelationsbetweenactivityandrepose。Theirgeneralresultistoprovethatmuscularwork，doneafterfatiguehassetin，notonlycostsmorenervouseffortbutaccomplisheslesswork。Theergograph，aninstrumentformeasuringwork，yieldsampletestimonytotherecuperativeeffectofresttakenbeforeexhaustionisreached，ontheonehand，andtherapidrateofdeclineinachievementwhenactivityiscontinuedafterthefatiguepointhasbeenreached。

§；4。Tothisaccountofthephysicalcostsofexcessiveworkinmuscularandnervouswastemustbeaddedthegreaterliabilitytoaccidentsandthegreatersusceptibilitytoindustrialandnon-industrialdiseaseswhichfatigueentails。

Thestatisticsofindustryinvariouscountriesprovethatfatigueisaveryimportantfactorinindustrialaccidents。Thoughfatigueisnotalwaysproportionatetodurationofwork，thenumberofhoursworkedwithoutintermissionisusuallyavalidindexoffatigue。Afteralongstuntofworktheattentionoftheworkerandhismuscularcontrolarebothweakened。

Wefind，therefore，amarkedsimilarityinthecurvesrelatingaccidentstohoursoflabour，accidentsincreasingprogressivelyuptotheendofthemorning"swork，andagaininthelateafternoonastheday"sworkdrawstoitsclose。RecentGermanstatisticsshowthatthehighestrateofaccidentsisduringthefourthandfifthhoursofmorningwork。

Thatover-fatigueconnectedwithindustryisresponsibleforlargenumbersofnervousdisordersis，ofcourse，generallyadmitted。Thegrowingprevalenceofcardiacneurosisandofneurastheniaingeneralamongworking-peopleisattestedbymanymedicalauthorities，especiallyinoccupationswherelongstrainsofattentionareinvolved。Butthegeneralenfeeblementandlossofresistancepowertodiseasegermsofallkindsareevenmoreinjuriousconsequencesofover-exertion。Manyexperimentsattestthefactthatfatiguereducesthepowerofthebloodtoresistbacteriaandtheirtoxicproducts。

§；5。SofarIhavedweltexclusivelyuponthephysiologicalnatureandeffectsoffatigueascostsoflabour。Butdueaccountmustalsobetakenofthepsychicalorconsciouscosts。Muchworkinitsinitialstagecontainselementsofpleasurableexerciseofsomehumanorganorfaculty，andevenwhenthispleasurehaswornoffaconsiderableperiodofindifferencemayensue。Thoughboredommaysetinbeforeanystrainoffatigue，theearlierperiodofennuimaynotentailaheavycost。But，whenfatigueadvances，theirksomenessbringsagrowingfeelingofpainfuleffort，andalongboutoffatigueproducesasitsconcomitantaperiodofgraveconsciousirritationofnerveswithasubsequentperiodofpainfulcollapse。Wheretheconditionsofworkaresuchastoinvolveadailyrepetitionofthispain，itsaccumulativeeffectconstitutesoneoftheheaviestofhumancosts，aloweringofmentalityandofmoralresistancecloselycorrespondingtothedeclineofphysicalresistance。Drinkandothersensationalexcessesarethenormalreactionsofthisloweredmorale。Thusfatigueranksasamaindeterminantofthe"character"oftheworking-classesandhasasocialsignificanceinitsbearinguponorderandprogressnotlessimportantthanitsinfluenceupontheindividualorganism。

§；6。Ihavedweltinsomedetailuponthesephenomenaoffatigue，becausetheyexhibitmostclearlythedefectsoftheworkinglifewhichcarryheaviesthumancosts。Thesedefectsareexcessivedurationoflabour，excessivespecialisation，excessiverepetition，excessivestrainandexcessivespeed。Thoughseparateforpurposesofanalysis，thesefactorscloselyinteract。Meredurationoflabourdoesnotnecessarilyinvolvefatigue，provideditcarriestheelementsofinterest，variety，andachievement。

Thedegreeofspecialisationorsubdivisionoflabourcountsonthewholemoreheavily。Butevenahighdegreeofspecialisationisalleviated，whereitcontainsmanylittlechangesofactionorposition，andaffordsscopeforthesatisfactionattendingexpertskill。Itistheconstantrepetitionofanidenticalactionataprescribedpacethatbringstheheaviestburdenofmonotony。

Itisuponthiscombinationofconditionsthatthefirstcountagainstthedominionofmachineryisbased。Thebriefphysiologicalconsiderationwehavebroughttobearupontheproblemoffatiguegivesclearersignificancetomonotonyasa"cost"。Itimplies，notmerelyadullanddistastefuloccupation，butonewhich，taxingcontinuallythesamemusclesandthesamenerve-centres，increasesthepoisonoffatigue。Handlabourofanarroworder，ormachine-tendinghoweverlight，entailsthisheavycost，ifmaintainedoveralongperiodoftime。

Butwheremonotonousrepetitioniscloselydirectedbytheactionofamachine，asregardsitsmanneranditspace，thereisaspecialnervouscost。Forahand-worker，howeverdullorheavyisthework，retainssomeslightpowerofvaryingthepaceandperhapsofchanginghispositionormodeofwork。Aworkerwhoeitherfeedsamachineoradjustshismovementsinobediencetothoseofamachine，asforinstanceacutterintheclothingtradeorinshoemaking，hasnosuchliberty。Thespecialcosthereentailedisthatoftryingtomakeanorganismconforminitsmovementstoamechanism。

Nowahumanbeing，oranyotherorganism，hascertainnaturalrhythmsofmovementforwork，relatedtotherhythmsofheartandlungsandotherorganicprocesses，andtherearenaturallimitsalsotothepaceatwhichheCanefficiently，orevenpossibly，continueworking。Amachinealsohasrhythmsandamaximumefficiencypace。Buttherhythmsofamachinearedeterminedbyitsmechanicalconstructionandtheapparatuswhichfurnishesitspower:theyarecontinuouslyuniform，andarecapableofbeingspeededupbeyondthecapacityofthehumantender。

Ahumanrhythmisreallylabour-saving，inasmuchasiteasesthestraintoworkinaccordancewithanaturalswing。Tosetamantofollowtherhythmofamachinenotonlylosesthiseconomy，butentailsanextraeffortofconformity。Thetendencytospeedupamachine，soastogetthemostoutofit，isliabletotakeoutofthemachine-tenderevenmorethanheiscapableofrecognisinginthewayofnervousstrain。Whereconsiderablemuscularactivityisalsorequiredinfollowingahighpacesetbyamachine，anappallingburdenofhumancostsmaybeaccumulatedinafactoryday。

Whentosuchdirecthumancostsoflabourareaddedtherisksofindustrialaccidentorofindustrialdiseases，thephysicalinjuriesinvolvedinbadatmosphere，heat，noiseandotherincidentalpainsandinconvenienceswhichbesetmanybranchesofindustry，webegintorealisewithmoredistinctnessthemeaningof"costsoflabour"inthehumanasdistinguishedfromtheeconomicsense。

Lateronweshallturntoconsiderhowfartheeconomicormonetary"costs"correspondwiththesehumancosts。

Ourpresenttask，however，istoconductabriefsurveyofgeneralindustryinordertoformsomeideaofthemagnitudeofthesehumancostsintheleadingbranchesofproduction，andtoconsiderhowfartheyareoffsetorqualifiedbyfactorsofhumaninterestorutility，suchaswefoundwidelyprevalentintheworkoftheartistic，official，andadministrativeclasses。

§；1。Ifitweretruethatallthelabourofthewage-earningclasseswhichwenttoproducetherealnationalincomewere，ortendedtobecome，monotonousandhighlyspecialisedmachinetending，theworkersconstantlyengagedincloserepetitionofsomesinglenarrowautomaticprocess，contributingtosomefinalcompositeproductwhoseformandutilityhadnorealmeaningforthem，thetaleofhumancostswouldbeappalling。

Fortunatelythisisnotthewholetruthaboutlabour。Eventhechargeagainstmachineryofmechanisingtheworkerisfrequentlyoverstated。Theonlyproductiveworkthatisentirelyautomaticisdonebymachines。Forthemaintrendofthedevelopmentofindustrialmachineryhasbeentosetnon-humantoolsandpowertoundertakeworkwhichmancouldnotexecutewiththerequiredregularity，exactitude，orpace，byreasonofcertainorganicdeficiencies。While，then，thesub-dividedlabourinmoststapleindustriesismostlyofanarrowlyprescribedandroutinecharacter，itishardlyeversocompletelyuniformandrepetitiveasthatdonebyamachine。

Purelyroutinework，demandingnohumanskillorjudgmentisnearlyalwaysundertakenbymachinery，exceptwherehumanlabourcanbeboughtsocheapthatitdoesnotpaytoinventandapplymachinerysoastosecuresomeslightlyincreasedregularityorpaceofoutput。Where，then，asinmostmodernfactories，humanlabourcooperateswith，tendsandfeedsmachinery，thishumanlabourisofalesspurelyrepetitivecharacterthantheworkdonebythemachines。Someportionsofthelabour，atanyrate，containelementsofskillorjudgment，andarenotentirelyuniform。

Wecaninfactdistinguishmanykindsandgradesofhumancooperationwithmachinery。Insomeofthemmanisthehabitualservant，inothersthehabitualmasterofthemachine；inothers，again，therelationismoreindirectorincidental。Thoughanincreasingnumberoftheprocessesinthemakingandmovingofmostformsofmaterialgoodsinvolvestheuseofmachineryandpower，theydonotinvolve，asissometimessupposed，theemploymentofagrowingproportionoftheworkersinthemerelyroutinelabouroftendingthemachines。Suchasupposition，indeed，isinconsistentwiththeprimaryeconomyofmachinery，theso-calledlabour-savingproperty。

Itmight，indeed，bethecasethatthemachineeconomywasaccompaniedbysovastanincreaseofdemandformachine-madegoods，thatthequantityoflabourrequiredfortendingthemachineswasgreaterthanthatformerlyrequiredformakingbyhandthesmallerquantity。Insometradesthisisnodoubtso，asforinstanceintheprintingtrade，andinsomebranchesoftextileindustrywherethehomemarketislargelysupplementedbyexporttrade。Butthedisplacementofmachine-tendersbyautomaticmachinesisadvancinginmanyofthehighly-developedmachineindustries。Themodernflourorpapermill，forinstance，performsnearlyallitsfeedingprocessesbymechanicalmeanswhileinthetextiletradeautomaticspindlesandloomshavereducedthenumberandchangedthecharacteroftheworkofminders。

Moreandmoreofthisworkmeansbringinghumanelementsofskillandjudgmentandresponsibilitytobearinadjustingorcorrectingtheirregularitiesorerrorsintheoperationsofmachinery。Machinesareliabletorundown，becomeclogged，break，orotherwise"gowrong"。Theseerrorstheycanoftenbemadetoannouncebyautomaticsignals，buthumancareisneededfortheircorrection。Thiswork，howevermonotonousandfatiguingtomusclesornerves，isnotandcannotbeentirelyrepetitive。

Inmanyotherprocesseswherethemachineissaidtodothework，humanskillandpracticearerequiredtosetandtoregulatetheoperationsofthemachine。Theuseofautomaticlathesisaninstanceofcooperationinwhichsomescopeforhumanjudgmentremains。Themetalandengineeringtradesarefullofsuchinstances。Thoughmachineryisanexceedinglyimportantandinmanyprocessesagoverningfactor，itcannotbesaidtoreducethelabourthatworkswithittoitsownautomaticlevel。Onthecontrary，itmaybetakenasgenerallytruethat，intheprocesseswheremachineryhasreacheditsmostcomplexdevelopment，anincreasedshareofthelabouremployedincloseconnectionwiththemachineryisthatoftheskilledengineerorfitterratherthanofthemeretender。Theheaviestandthemostcostlylabourinthesetradesisusuallyfoundintheprocesseswhereithasnotbeenfoundpracticableoreconomicaltoapplymachinery。Indeed，thegeneraltendency，especiallynoticedinAmerica，inthemetaltrades，hasbeentosubstituteforalargeemploymentofskilledhandlabourofanarrowlyspecialisedorder，asmallemploymentofmoreskilledandresponsiblesupervisorsofmachineryandalargeemploymentoflow-skilledmanuallabourinthelessmechanicaldepartments，suchasfurnaceworkandotheroperationspreparatorytothemachineprocesses。

§；2。Thoughaccuratestatisticsarenotavailable，itappearsthatinthiscountrytheproportionoftheworkingpopulationemployedinmanufacturesisnotincreasing，anditismorethanprobablethatanexactanalysisofthenatureoftheworkofourfactoriesandworkshopswouldshowthattheproportionengagedindirectattendanceonmachinerywassteadilyfalling。

Foreveninmanufacture，thedepartmentofindustrywheremachineprocesseshavemademostadvance，therearemanyprocesseswherehandlabourisstillrequired，insortingandpreparingmaterialsformachinery，inperformingminorprocessesoftrimmingordecoration，inputtingtogetherpartsorinpacking，etc。Wherefemalelabourisemployed，averylargeproportionofitwillbefoundtobeengagedinsuchprocessesoutsidethedirectdominionofmachinery。Thoughmostofthedistinctivelyhuman"costs"ofmachineprocesses，thelonghours，highpace，monotonyofmusclesandnervestrain，areusuallypresentinsuchwork，itisnotabsolutelymechanical，someslightelementsofskillandvolitionaldirectionbeingpresent。

Thereareotherrestrictionsuponthepurelyrepetitiveorroutinecharacterofmanufacture。Thereismuchworkwhichnomachinecanbeinventedtodobecauseofcertaininherentelementsofirregularity。Mostofthesearerelatedtotheorganicnatureofsomeofthematerialsused。Whereexpensiveanimalorvegetableproductsrequiretreatment，theirnaturalinequalitiesoftenrenderapurelymechanicaloperationimpossibleorwasteful。

Thekilling，cutting，andcanningprocessesinthemeattrade，thepicking，preparationandpackingoffruit，manyprocessesinthetanningandleathertrade。thefinersortsofcabinetmaking，areexamplesofthisunadaptabilityoforganicmaterialstopurelymechanicaltreatment。Whereveryvaluableinorganicmaterialsareusedinmakinghigh-gradeproducts，similarlimitationsinthemachineeconomyexist。Thefinestjewelleryandwatch-makingstillrequiretheskillandjudgmentofthepractisedhumanhandandeye。Someoftheirregularitiesinsuchprocessesare，indeed，sosmallandsouninterestingastoaffordlittle，ifany，abatementofhumancosts；buttheyremovethelabourfromthedirectcontrolofamachine。

Amoreimportantirregularitywhichrestrictsmachineryinmanufactureexistswherethepersonalneedsortasteoftheconsumerhelptodeterminethenatureoftheprocessandtheproduct。Hereagainweareconfrontedbytheantagonismofmechanismandorganism。Forthetruedemandofconsumersisthehighestexpressionoftheuniquenesswhichdistinguishestheorganic。

Asnotwoconsumersareexactlyidenticalinsize，shape，physicalormentalcapacities，tastesandneeds，thegoodsrequiredfortheirconsumptionshouldexhibitsimilardifferences。Machineeconomycannotproperlymeetthisrequirement。Itcanonlydealwithconsumerssofarastheirhumannatureiscommon:itcannotsupplytheneedsoftheirindividuality。Sofarastheyarewillingtosinktheirdifferences，consentingtoconsumelargequantitiesofgoodsofidenticalshapes，sizesandqualities，themachinecansupplythem。Butsincenotwoconsumersarereallyidenticalinneedsandtastes，orremainquiteconstantintheirneedsandtastes，thefundamentalassumptionofroutine-economyisopposedtothehumanfacts。

Consumerswhorefusetosinktheirindividualityandare"particular"

inthesortofclothestheywear，thesortofhousesandfurnitureandothergoodstheywillconsenttobuy，exerciseapowerantagonistictoroutinelabour。Theydemandthatproducersshallputoutthetechnicalskill，thecare，tasteandjudgmentrequiredtosatisfytheirfeelingsasconsumers。Thatistosay，theydemandthelabournotoftheroutine-workerbutofthecraftsman，workwhich，thoughnotcreativeinthefullfreeartisticsense，containsdistinctelementsofhumaninterestandinitiative。

§；3。Thepresenceandthepossibilitiesofthisindividualityoflabour，flowingfromtheeducatedindividualityofconsumers，areamostimportantinfluenceinthelighteningofthehumancostsoflabour。Atpresentnodoubtaverysmallproportionofthematerialgoodsturnedoutbytheindustrialsystemcontainsanyappreciableelementofthisindividualityofworkmanship。Itmay，indeed，wellappearthatourrecentcourseduringthedevelopmentofthemachineeconomyhasbeenaretrogradeone。Inthebeginningsofindustryitappearedasifthereweremorescopefortheproducer"sself-expression，morejoyofwork，moreinterestintheproduct，eventhoughdestinedforthecommonestuses。TheguildsintheMiddleAgespreservednotalittleofthishappierspiritofcraftsmanship。Tothosewhobrooduponthesevisionsofthepast，ourmodernindustrialdevelopmenthasoftenseemedacrudesubstitutionofquantityofgoodsforquality，thecharacteroflabourdeterioratingintheprocess。Withtheelementoftruthinsuchajudgmentismingledmuchfalsehood。Therehasneverbeenanageoracountrywherethegreatbulkoflabourwasnottoilsome，painful，monotonous，anduninteresting，oftendegradinginitsconditions。

Badasthingsare，whenregardedfromthestandpointofahumanideal，theyarebetterforthemajorityoftheworkersinthisandinotheradvancedindustrialcountriesthaneverinthepast，sofaraswecanreconstructandunderstandthatpast。Machineryhasrenderedagreathumanservicebytakingoverlargemassesofheavy，dull，anddegradingwork。Whenfullydevelopedandharnessedtothesocialserviceofman，itshouldprovetobethegreatliberatorofhisfreeproductivetastesandfaculties，performingforhimtheroutineprocessesofindustrysothathemayhavetimeandenergytodevotehimselftoactivitiesmoreinterestingandvaried。

Theuniquenessoftheindividualconsumerhasonlybeguntomakeitsimpressionuponindustry。Foritneedslibertyandeducationforamantorecognisethispropertyoforganicuniquenessandtoinsistonrealisingit。Thefirstmovementsofconscioustastesinanationoraclassarelargelyimitative，takingshapeinfashionssufficientlywide-spreadanduniformtolendthemselvestoroutinemechanicalproduction。Theself-assertionoftheindividualisaslowerfruitofculture。But，asitgrows，itwillofferacontinuallystrongeroppositiontothedominionofmechanicalproduction。

Itwilldothisintwoways。Inthefirstplace，itwillcausealargerproportionofdemandtobedirectedtotheclassesofproducts，suchasintellectual，aesthetic，andpersonalservices，whicharebytheirnaturelesssusceptibleofmechanicalproduction。Inthesecondplace，weakeningthetraditionalandtheimitativefactorsintasteanddemand，itwillcauseconsumption，evenofthehigherformsofmaterialcommodities，tobeamoreaccurateexpressionofthechangingneedsandtastesoftheindividual，stampingupontheprocessesofproductionthesameimpressofindividuality。

Butthoughthedirectcontrolofmachineryoverhumanlabourisobstructedintheearlierextractiveprocessesbytherefractoryunevennatureofmaterials，andinthefinalprocessesbythenatureandparticularrequirementsofconsumers，itsinfluenceextendsfarbeyondthemiddleprocessesofmanufacturewhereitsprominenceisgreatest。

Power-drivenmachineryplaysalargerpartinagricultureeveryyear:miningisthefirstofmachineindustriesinthesensethatitemploysthelargestamountofhorsepowerperman；thetransporttradebyseaandlandismechanisedeveninitsminorlocalbranches；thegreatpublicservices，supplyinglight，water，andothercommonwants，areamongthelargestusersofpower-drivenmachinery；

thegreatestofourmaterialindustrieswhichstilldependsmainlyuponhandlabour，thebuildingandroad-makinggroup，isconstantlyincreasingitsdependenceonmachineryforitsheaviercarryingworkandforthepreparationofthemetal，stoneandwoodworkitemploys。Whenweaddthegrowthofnewlargemanufactures，suchaschemicalsandelectricalapparatus，theenormousexpansionofthepaperandprintingtradesunderthenewmechanicalconditions，therecenttransferenceoftheprocessesofthepreparationoffoodsanddrinksandlaundryworkfromtheprivatehousetothefactory，weshallrecognisethatthenetinfluenceofmachinery，asdeterminingthecharacterofhumanlabour，isstilladvancingwithconsiderablerapidity。

§；4。Itisnoteasytoanswerthetworelatedquestions，"Howfarismachinerythemaster，howfartheservant，oftheworkerswhocooperatewithit？""Howfardoesmachineryaggravate，howfarlightenthehumancostsoflabour？"Evenwhenwecomparetheworkoftheclassesmostsubservienttomachinery，thefeedersandtendersinourfactories，withthedomesticorearlierfactoryprocessesunderhandlabour，itisbynomeansself-evidentthatthenetburdenofthehumancostshasbeenenhanced。For，thoughthespinningandweavingworkbeforetheindustrialrevolutionhadcertainslightelementsoffreedomandvarietynowabsent，manyofthehygienicconditionswerefarworse，thehoursoflabourwereusuallylonger，andthelargeemploymentofoldfolkandtenderchildren，inworknearlyasunvariedasthatenjoinedbymodernmachinery，enslavedtheentirelifeofthehomeandfamilytothenarrowandprecariousconditionsofasmalllocaltrade。Thereallibertyoftheworker，asregardshiswork，oritsdisposalinthemarket，washardlygreaterthaninthemodernfactory。

Inmostofthegreatbranchesofproduction，machineryisratheranadjuncttolabourthanadirector。

Thelabourerinchargeofthemachinetendsmoretothetypeoftheengineerthantothatofthefeederormereminder。Thoughthemining，metal，chemical，paper，foodanddrinkmanufacturescontainlargequantitiesofmachinery，alargeproportionofthosewhohavetodealwiththemachinesareskilledmanuallabourers。Sointhetransporttrade，thoughthedisplacementoftheold-timesailorbytheengineerandstoker，ofthehorse-driverbytheengine-driverandthemotor-man，sometimesappearstoinvolveadegradationoflabour，theissueisadoubtfulone，ifalltheprosandconsaretakenintodueaccount。Asregardstheemploymentofmachineryinthebuildingandcontractingtrades，asinthemining，itsfirstandobviouseffecthasbeentorelievehumanlabourfrommuchoftheheaviestmusculartoil。Thoughmostofsuchlabourinvolvestooslightelementsofinterestorskillgreatlytoalleviatethephysicalfatigue，itcannotbesaidthatmachineryhasincreasedtheburden。CHAPTERVII:THEDISTRIBUTIONOF

HUMANCOSTS

§；1。Inendeavouringtoestimatethehumancostsoflabourintermsofphysicalwearandtearandtheconsciouspainsandpenaltiesentailedbytheconditionsunderwhichmanyindustrialprocessesarecarriedon，wehavehithertoconsideredthesecostsasbornebyworkers，irrespectiveofage，sex，orotherdiscriminations。Butitisself-evidentthatagivenstrainuponmusclesornervesoveraperiodoftimewillvarygreatly，bothintheorganiccostandintheconsciouspainwhichitentails，accordingtothestrengthandendurance，nervousstructure，physicalandmoralsensitiveness，ofthedifferentsortsofworkers。Indeed，agivenoutputofproductiveenergywillevidentlyentailadifferenthumancostineverypersoncalledupontogiveitout:foreverydifferenceofstrength，skill，capacityandcharactermusttosomeextentaffecttheorganicburdenofthetask。

Inendeavouring，therefore，torelatethehumantotheeconomiccostsofproductionofanyquantityofmaterialwealthorservices，itwouldbenecessarytoconsiderhowfartheconditionsofemploymenttendtoeconomisehumancostsbydistributingtheburdenproportionatelytothepowertobearit。Thehumanwastesorexcessivecosts，entailedbyconditionsofemploymentwhichimposeunequalburdensuponworkerswithequalcapacitytobearthem，orwhichdistributetheburdenunequallyintimeoverthesamesetofworkers，alternatingslackperiodswithperiodsofexcessiveover-time，areobvious。Unfortunatelytheoperationofourindustrialsystemhasnothithertotakentheseintosufficientaccount。

Thoughthephysical，moralandsocialinjuries，duetoalternatingperiodsofoverandunderwork，aregenerallyadmitted，thefullcostsofsuchirregularity，humanandeveneconomic，arefarfrombeingadequatelyrealised。Whilesomeattemptsat"decasualisation"arebeingmade，thelargerandmorewastefulirregularitiesofseasonalandcyclicalfluctuationsarestillregardedasirremediable。