第6章

1。Collectiveorcooperativeconsumptionoutsidethehomeorfamilyisofcourseincreasing。Notonlyhavewemunicipalsuppliesforpub1icuse，e。g。，schools，libraries，museums，parks，baths，lighting，etc。，butmanyformsofprivateexpenditureofincomeoneducational，recreative，philanthrophicandothercooperativemodesofconsumption。

2。ForthefullestandmostrecentexpositionofthistheoryseeMr。

J。M。Robertson"sTheEvolutionofStates(Watts&；Co。)。CHAPTERX:CLASSSTANDARDSOF

§；1。Wemaynowapplythesegeneralconsiderationsregardingtheevolutionofwantstoclassandindividualstandardsofconsumption。Inaconcreteclassstandardofconsumptionwemayconvenientlydistinguishthreedeterminantfactors:1st。Theprimaryorganicfactor，theelementsinconsumptionimposedbygeneralorparticularconditionsofphysicalenvironment，suchassoil，climate，inrelationtophysicalneeds。2nd。

Theindustrialfactor，themodificationsinorganicneedsduedirectlyorindirectlytoconditionsofwork。3rd。Theconventionalfactor，thoseelementsinastandardofconsumptionnotbaseddirectlyuponconsiderationsofphysicaloreconomicenvironmentbutimposedbysocialcustom。

Sofarasthefirstfactorisconcerned，weareforthemostpartintheregionofmaterialnecessariesinwhich，aswehavealreadyseen，theorganicsecuritiesforhumanutilityarestrongest。Whereanypopulationhasformanygenerationsbeensettledinalocality，itmustadaptitselfintwowaystothephysicalconditionsofthatlocality。Itschiefconstituentsoffood，clothing，shelter，etc。，mustbeaccommodatedtoallthemorepermanentandimportantconditionsofsoil，climate，situationandofthefloraandfaunaofthecountry。Atropicalpeoplecannotbegreatmeat-eatersoraddictedtostrongdrinks，thoughthematerialsforbothhabitsmaybeabundant。Anarcticpeople，ontheotherhand，mustfindinanimalfatsaprincipalfood，andintheskinsofanimalsaprincipalarticleofclothing。

Inacountrywhereearthquakesfrequentlyoccur，thematerialsandstructureofthehousesmustbelight。Inthesamecountrythepeopleofthemountains，thevalleys，theplains，thesea-shores，willbefoundwithnecessarydifferencesintheirfundamentalstandardofconsumption。Itis，indeed，self-evidentthatphysicalenvironmentmustexerciseanimportantselectiveandrejectivepowerrepresentedinthematerialstandardofconsumption。Sofarasmancanmodifyandalterthephysicalenvironment，asbydrainage，forestry，orthedestructionofnoxiousanimalsorbacteria，hemaytothatextentreleasehisstandardofconsumptionforthisregionalcontrol。

Primitiveman，again，andevenmostmenincomparativelyadvancedcivilisations，areconfinedforthechiefmaterialsoffood，shelterandothernecessaries，totheresourcesoftheircountryorlocality。Theymustaccommodatetheirdigestionsandtheirtastestothefoodsthatcanberaisedconvenientlyandinsufficientquantitiesintheneighbourhood:theymustbuildtheirhousesandmaketheirdomesticandotherutensilsoutofthematerialproductswithineasyreach。Theearlyevolutionofastandardofnecessaryconsumption，workingunderthiscloseeconomyoftrialanderror，appearstoguaranteeafree，natural，instinctiveselectionoforganicallysoundconsumables。

Theprimaryphysicalcharacteristicsofacountry，alsoofcourse，affectwithvaryingdegreesofurgencythoseelementsinastandardofconsumptionnotdirectlyendowedwithstrongsurvivalvalue，thosewhichwecallconveniences，comforts，luxuries。Themodesandmaterialsofbodilyadornment，thestylesofdomesticandotherarchitecture，religiousceremonies，formsofrecreation，willevidentlybedeterminedinadirectmannerbyclimaticandotherphysicalconsiderations。

Recentcivilisation，withitsrapidextensivespreadofcommunications，anditsequallyrapidandvariousexpansionoftheartsofindustry，hasbroughtaboutaninterferencewiththisnaturaleconomywhichhasdangersaswellasadvantages。Theswiftexpansionofcommercebringsgreatquantitiesoffoodsandotherconsumablesfromremotecountries，andplacesthematthedisposalofpopulationsunderconditionswhichgivenoadequatesecurityfororganicutilityofconsumption。Underaneconomyofnaturalselectionexoticsarebyrightsuspect，atanyrateuntiltimehastriedthem。Theincorporationofarticlessuchasteaandtobaccoinourpopularconsumptionhastakenplaceunderconditionswhichaffordnoproperguaranteeoftheirindividualutility，oragainstthebadreactionstheymaycauseinthewholecomplexstandardsofconsumption。

Thebackstrokeofthiscommercialexpansionisseeninsuchoccurrencesasthedeforestationofgreattractsofcountryandthealterationoftheclimaticcharacter，withitseffectsuponthelivesoftheinhabitants。

Butthoughcertainerrorsandwastesattendtheseprocessesofcommercialismandindustrialism，theymustnotbeexaggerated。Thereisnoreasontoholdthatmankindingeneralhasbeensodeeplyandfirmlyspecialisedinneedsandsatisfactionsbylocalphysicalconditionsthathecannotadvantageouslyavailhimselfofthematerialproductsofawiderenvironment。

Thoughthedigestiveandassimilativeapparatusmaynotbesoadaptableasthebrain，thereisnogroundforholdingthatconformityduringmanygenerationstoaparticularformofdietprecludestheeasyadoptionofexoticelementsoftencontainingbetterfood-propertiesinmoreassimilableforms。AChinesepopulation，habituatedtorice，canquicklyrespondinhigherphysicalefficiencytoawheatdiet，noristhefactthatbananasareatropicalfruitdetrimentaltotheirvalueasfoodforLondoners。

Howfarthepurelyempiricalwayinwhichfoodsandotherelementsinanecessarystandardhavebeenevolvedcanbeadvantageouslycorrectedorsupplementedbyscientifictests，isaquestionremainingfordiscussionaftertheotherfactorsinstandardsofconsumptionhavebeenbroughtunderinspection。

§；2。Industrialconditions，themselvesofcourselargelydeterminedbyphysicalenvironment，affectclassandindividualconsumptioninveryobviousways。Eachoccupationimposesontheworker，andindirectlyuponallthemembersofhisfamily，certainmethodsofliving。Physiologicallawsprescribemanyofthosemethods。Aparticularsortofoutputofmuscularornervousenergydemandsaparticularsortofdiettoreplacetheexpenditure。

Theproperdietofanagriculturallabourer，amilloperativeandaminer，willhavecertainrecogniseddifferences。Muscularandmental，activeandsedentary，monotonousandinterestingwork，willinvolvedifferentamountsandsortsofnourishment，anddifferentexpendituresforleisureoccupations。

Thesedifferenceswillextendbothtothenecessariesandthehigherelementsinstandardsofconsumption。Industrialrequirementswillstampthemselveswithmoreorlessforceandexactitudeuponeachoccupation。Ananalysisofbudgetswouldshowthatthestandardoftheclergymanwasnotthatofthemerchantorevenofthedoctor，andthatthesamefamilyincomewouldbedifferentlyapplied。Thestockbrokerwillnotlivelikethemill-owner，northejournalistliketheshopkeeper。Sorightthroughthevariousgradesofworkers。Theskilledmechanic，thefactoryhand，therailwayman，theclerk，theshop-assistant，thelabourer，willallhavetheirrespectivestandards，mouldedormodifiedbytheconditionsoftheirwork:theirneedsandtastesforfood，clothing，recreation，etc。，willbeaffectedinsubtlewaysbythatwork。

"Productive"consumptionisthetermgivenbyclassicalpoliticaleconomytothatportionofconsumptionappliedsoastomaintainorimprovetheefficiencyoflabour-powerintheworkerandhisfamily。Necessariesalonewereheldabsolutelyproductive，conveniencesandcomfortsweredubious，luxurieswereunproductive。Regardedevenfromthecommercialstandpoint，itwasashallowanalysis，confinedtoapresentutilisationofimmediatelyusefulcommodities，andignoringthereactionsuponfutureproductivityofariseineducationandrefinement。Itbelongedtoanagebeforetheeconomyofhighwagesorthemoralstimuliofhopeandanintelligentoutlookuponlifehadwonanyconsiderablerecognitionas"productive"stimuli。

Butfromthestandpointofouranalysisthedefectofthistreatmentisadeeperone。Forusthedistinctionbetweenproductiveandunproductiveconsumptionisasfundamentalasintheoldereconomictheory。Thedifferenceliesintheconceptionofthe"product"thatistogiveameaningto"productive"。

Productiveconsumption，accordingtotheoldereconomictheory，wasmeasuredbytheyieldofeconomicproductivity，accordingtoourtheorybytheyieldofvitalwelfare。Thetwonotmerelyarenotidentical，theymayoftenbeconflictingvalues。

Adietproductiveofgreatmuscularenergyforanavvy，foundrymanordrayman，mayproduceacoarsetypeofanimalismwhichprecludestheformationofahighernervousstructureandthefinerqualitiesofcharacterthatareitsspiritualcounterpart。Theindustrialconditionsofmanyproductiveemploymentsarenotoriouslysuchastoimpairthephysiqueandthemuscleoftheworkersengagedinthem，andthereisnogroundforassumingthatthehabitsofconsumption，conducingtoincreasedproductivityinsuchtrades，carryanynetfreightofhumanutility。

Norisitonlyinmanuallabourthattheindustrialinfluencesmouldingastandardofconsumptionmaydamageitshumanquality。Muchsedentaryintellectualworkinvolvessimilarlyinjuriousreactionsuponmodesofliving。Thephysicalabusesofathleticism，stimulantsanddrugs，areveryprevalentresultsofdisorderedcompetitioninintellectualemployments。

But，asbadelementsinstandardsofexpenditure，theintellectualexcesses，thefatuousordegradingformsofliterature，drama，art，music，whichthislifegenerates，areperhapsevenmoreinjurious。Oneoftheheaviesthumancostsofanover-intellectuallifetodayisits"culture"。

§；3。Whenwecometo"conventional"elementsinstandardsofcomfort，weenteraregionwhichappearstoadmitanindefiniteamountofwasteanderror。

Theveryterm"conventional"，setasitisinoppositionto"natural"，indeed，suggestsanabsenceoforganicutility。Wehearof"conventionalnecessaries"eveninthelowestlevelsofworking-classexpenditure。I

presumethattheexpenditureinbeer，tobacco，uponspreesorfunerals，orupondecorativeclothing，wouldbeplacedinthiscategory。

Fromthepurelyeconomicstandpointsuchexpenditurehasbeenaccountedeitherwaste，or，evenworse，"disutility"。

Itisoftenarguedthatalabouringfamilyon21s。perweekcouldbekeptinphysicalefficiency，ifeverypennywereexpendedeconomicallyinobtaining"organicvalue"。Thisistheidealofacertainorderofadvocatesofthriftandtemperance。Wholegenerationsofeconomistshaveaccumulatedeasyvirtuebypreachingthisrigorouseconomyfortheworking-classes。

Ithasalwaysseemedpossibletosqueezeoutofthestandardofanyworking-classenoughoftheconventionalorsuperfluoustojustifytheopinionthatmostofthemiseryofthepooristheirownfault，inthesensethat，iftheymadeacompletelyrationaluseoftheirwages，theycouldsupportthemselvesindecency。Theamountspentbytheworkersondrinkalonewould，itisoftencontended，makeampleprovisionagainstmostoftheworstemergenciesofworking-classlife。

Nowthereareseveralcommentstobemadeonthisattitudetowardsconventionalexpenditure。1。Asoneascendsabovetheprimaryorganicneeds，theevolutionofdesiresbecomeslessreliableandmorecomplicated:theelementofwillandchoiceandthereforeofchoosingbadly，becomeslarger。

Somecondimentsareusefulforassistingthedigestionofprimaryfoods，butitiseasiertomakemistakesincondimentsthaninstaplefoods。Sowithallthehigherandmorecomplexwants。Asonerisesabovetheprimerequisitesandconveniences，organicinstincts，ortastesdirectlydependentonthem，playadiminishingpartasfaithfuldirectorsofconsumption。

Thisnaturalguidancedoesnotindeeddisappear。Theevolutionofahumanbeingwithfinernervousstructure，andwithhigherintellectualandmoralneedsanddesiresrelatedtothatstructure，isafairlycontinuousprocess。

Thefinestandbest-balancednaturesthuscarryintotheirmorecomplexmodesofsatisfactionatruepsycho-physicalstandardofutility。Butitisalreadyadmittedthattheliabilitytogowrongisfargreaterinthosemodesofexpenditurewhicharenotdirectlycontributorytosurvival。Thisisthecase，whetherindividualtastesorsomeacceptedconventiondeterminestheexpenditure。

Thisissogenerallyrecognisedthatitislikelythattheorganicutilityofpersonaltastesontheonehand，customandconventionontheother，hasbeenundulydisparaged。Thetemperofeconomistsinassessingvalueshasbeentooshort-sightedandtooinelastic。Agooddealofpersonalexpenditurethatiswastefulorworsewhentakenonitsseparatemeritsmaybejustifiedasarudeexperimentalprocessbywhichapersonlearnswisdomandfindshissoul。Whatistrueofcertainfreakishpersonalconductisprobablytruealsoofthoseconventionalpractices，inwhichwholesocietiesorclassesconducttheircollectiveexperimentsintheartofliving。

Atoorigorouseconomy，whetherdirectedbyinstinctorreason，whichshouldrulewithminuteexactitudetheexpenditureofindividualsorsocieties，inordertoextractfromallexpenditureofincomethemaximumofseenutilities，wouldbeboundtosinagainstthatlawofprogresswhichdemandsanadequateprovisionfortheseexperimentalprocessesinlifewhich，takenbythemselves，appearsowasteful。

Socialpsychologybringsamoreliberalandsympatheticunderstandingtobearuponsomeofthepracticeswhichtoashortsightedeconomistappearmerewastefulextravagance，destituteofutilityanddisplacingsomeimmediatelyserviceableconsumption。Letmetakesomenotableexamplesfromcurrentworking-classexpenditure。Thelavishexpenditureuponbank-holidays，inwhichlargeclassesofwage-earners"blow"alargeproportionofanysurplustheypossessbeyondthesubsistencewage，isthesubjectofcausticcriticismbythriftymiddle-classfolk。Butmaynotthisholidayspirit，withacertainabandonitcontains，beregardedasa"natural"andevenwholesomereactionagainstthecrampingpressureofroutineindustrialismandthenormalrigourofaclosedomesticeconomy？Itmaynot，indeed，beanideallygoodmodeofreaction，mayevencontainelementsofpositivedetriment，andyetmaybetheventforvaluableorganicinstinctsseekingafterthosequalitiesoffreedom，joyandpersonaldistinctionthatareessentialtoalifeworthliving。1

Ortakethegravestofalldefectsofworking-classexpenditure，thedrink-bill。Thiscraving，hostileasitistothephysicalandmorallifeofman，isnotunderstood，andthereforecannotbeeffectivelyeradicated，unlessdueaccountistakenofcertainemotionalimplications。Theyieldingtodrinkisnotmerebrutality。Brutesdonotdrink。Itisinsomeparttheresponsetoaninstincttoescapefromtheimprisonmentinanarrowcrampingenvironmentwhichaffordsnoscopeforaspirationandachievement。

Itmayindeedbesaidthatthedrinkerdoesnotaspireanddoesnotachieve。

Heisdoubtlessthevictimofanillusion。Butitisacertaindimsenseofahigherfreerlifethatlureshimon。"Elevation"iswhatissought。

"KingsmaybeblessedbutTamwasgloriousO"era"theillso"lifevictorious。"

Ortakestillanotheritemofworking-classexpenditurefrequentlycondemnedasatypicalexampleofextravagance，therelativelylargeexpenseoffunerals。

Isthistobedismissedoffhandasmerewantonwaste？Amorehumaninterpretationwillfindinitotherelementsofmeaning。Intheordinarylifeof"thecommonpeople"thereislittlescopeforthatpersonaldistinctionwhichamongtheupperclassesfindsexpressioninsomanyways。Thequietworking-manorwomanhasneverforabriefhourthroughalonglifetimestoodoutamonghisfellows，orgatheredroundhimthesympatheticattentionofhisneighbours。

Isitwhollyunintelligibleorregrettablethatthosewhocareforhimshouldwishtogivethisnarrow，thwarted，obscurepersonalityamomentofdignityandglory？Thesumoflifeisaddedupinthispompofreckoning，andthefamilyisgatheredintoafocusofneighbourlyattentionandgood-feeling，theoutwardemblemsofhonouraredisplayed，andawholerangeofhumanemotionsfindsexpression。Suchexcessasexistsmustbeunderstoodasanaturalfruitofthoseaspiringqualitiesofpersonalitywhich，thwartedintheirnaturalandhealthygrowthbynarrownessofopportunity，cravethistraditionaloutlet。

Infact，themorecloselywestudytheconventionalfactorsinconsumption，thelessareweabletodismissthemoutofhandasmereextravaganceorwaste。Someorganicimpulse，halfphysical，halfpsychical，nearlyalwaysentersintoeventheleastdesirableelements。Amarginofexpenditure，eitherconventionalorexpressingindividualcaprice，2whichservestoevokepleasure，tostirinterest，andabovealltosatisfyasenseofpersonaldignity，eventhoughattheexpenseofsomemoreobviousandimmediateutilities，maybejustifiedbyconsiderationsofindividualandsocialprogress。

§；4。Suchconsiderationsmustnot，however，bepressedveryfarinthedefenceevenofthemostfirmly-rootedelementsofconventionalconsumption。For，thoughthedeeperorganicforceswhichworkthrough"naturalselection"musteliminatetheworstormostinjuriousmodesofexpenditurefromthepermanentstandardofaraceorclass，itmayleaveelementsfraughtwithgravedanger。Forneithertheanimalnorthespiritualnatureofmanisequippedwithaselectiveapparatusfortestingaccuratelyforpurposesoforganicwelfaretheinnumerablefreshapplicantsfor"consumption"whichappearastheevolutionofwants，ontheonehand，andofindustriesupontheother，becomesmorecomplexandmorerapid。

Anextremeinstancewillenforcemymeaning。TotakeaRedIndianoraBantufromanaturalandsocialenvironmentrelativelysimpleandstaple，andtoplungehimsuddenlyintotheswirlofamodernWesterncitylifeistocourtphysicalandmoraldisaster。Why？Becausethepressuresofanimaldesiresortheemotionsofprideandcuriosity，whichwererelatedbyeffective"taboos"intheprimitivelifefromwhichheisdrawn，nowworktheirwillunchecked。Forthe"taboos"ofcivilisedsocietyarebothill-adaptedtotheemotionaltextureofhisnature，andintheirnoveltyandcomplexityarenotadequatelycomprehended。Butevenforthosebornandbredintheenvironmentofarapidlychangingcivilisationthereareevidentlygreathazards。Notonlyindividualbutwidelycollectiveexperimentsinnoveltiesofconsumptionwilloftenbeinjurious。Thismaybeexplainedinthefirstinstanceasduetotheperversionordefectiveworkingofthe"instincts"originallydesignedtoprotectandpromotethelifeoftheindividualandthespecies。

Ananimallivinguponwhatmaybetermedunmodifiednatureispossessedofinstinctswhichmakepoisonousplantsoranimalsrepellenttoitstaste。

Amanlivinginahighlymodifiedenvironmentfindssuchshredsofinstinctivetastesashepossessesinadequatetotheriskofrejectingthefabricatedfoodsbroughtfromremotequartersoftheearthtotempthisappetite。

Ifthisholdsofarticlesoffood，whereerrorsmaybemortalandwheresomeprotection，howeverinsufficient，isstillfurnishedbythepalateandthestomach，stillmoredoesitholdofthe"higher"tastescomparativelyrecentlyimplantedincivilisedman。"Badtastes"thusmayintroducetheuseofbooksorartthatdisturbthemindwithoutinformingit，recreationsthatdistractanddissipateourpowerswithoutrecreatingandrestoringthem。Nordoesthe"socialorganism"furnishreliablecheckswhichshallstopthespreadofindividualerrorsintoconventionalconsumption。

§；5。Thequestionofindividualerrorsandwastesintheprocessofevolvingstandardsofconsumptionmustnotdetainus。Forthoughitrightlyfallswithinthescopeofafullyelaboratedvaluationofconsumption，itmustnotbeallowedtointrudeintoourmoremodestendeavourtodiscusstheseveralgradesofwantswhichcompriseaclassstandardofconsumption。

Therelativesizeofthewastesordefectsoftheconventionalfactorsinaclassstandardwillnotindeeddependuponthemereadditionoftheperversionoftheseparatechoicesofitsindividuals。Foraconventionisnotproducedbyamerecoincidenceofseparateactionsofindividualdesire。

Itmaybewellheretoreverttothedistinctionwhichwefoundconvenienttoemployinouranalysisofthehumanvalueofdifferentformsofwork，viz。，thedistinctionbetweencreationandimitation。Hereitwilltakeshapeinanenquiryastothewaysinwhichnewwantsarediscoveredandpassintoconventionaluse。Letustakeforanexamplethecaseofamedicinewhichhasbecomearecognisedremedyforadisease。Amonganimalsor"primitive"

manthehabitofeatingacurativeherbmayberegardedasduetoanorganicinstinctcommontoeachmemberoftheherdorgroup。Suchconsumption，however，wouldnotreallyfallwithinthecategoryofour"conventionalconsumption"。Itwouldineffectbeconfinedtoalimitednumberofarticlescontainingstrongelementsof"survivalvalue"，inapre-economicperiod，though，assoonastribalsocietybegantoevolvethemedicineman，hisprescriptionswouldaddmanyelementsofwasteanderror。Buttheconsumableswhoseoriginwearenowconsideringmustberegardedasinvolvinginventionordiscovery，andconsciousimitationoradoptionbythegroup。Unlesswesupposethatthechewingofcinchonabarkhadabackingofinstinctiveadaptation，andsopassedbytraditionintolateragesofIndianlife，wemustholdthatthefirstbeginningsoftheuseofquinineasacureforintermittentfeversinSouthAmericaweredueeithertochanceortoearlyempiricismintreatment。

Someperson，probablyenjoyingdistinctioninhistribe，triedcinchonabarkandrecoveredofhisfever，otherstriedituponthisexampleandgotbenefit，andsothefameoftheremedyspreadfirstfromasinglecentre，andafterwardsfromanumberofotherpersonalcentresbyconsciousimitation。Or，similarly，taketheadoptionofsomearticleofdiet，suchassugarortobacco，whichisanelementnotofprimephysicalutilitybutofcomfortorpleasure。Thefirstmenwhochewedthesugar-cane，ortriedthefumesoftheherbanicotina，mustbedeemedtohavedoneso"byaccident"。Likingtheresult，theyrepeatedtheexperimentbydesign，andthispersonalhabitbecomethecustomaryhabitofthegroup，mouldedbyatraditioncontinuouslysupportedbyarepetitionofthefeelingwhichattendedthefirstchanceexperience。

Suchaccretionstoastandardofconsumptionmayberegardedaspossessingguaranteesofutilityorsafeguardsagainststrongpositivedisutilityintheirmethodofadoption。Theyhavegrownintotheconventionalstandard"ontheirmerits"。Those"merits"mayindeedbevariouslyestimatedfromthe"organic"standpoint。Quininehasahighorganicvirtue，sugarperhapsanevenwiderbutlessvitalvirtue，whilethevirtueoftobaccomaybepurelysuperficialandcompensatedbyconsiderableorganicdemerits。Butbothdiscoveryandpropagationhavebeeninallthesecases"natural"and"reasonable"processes，intheplainordinaryacceptationoftheseterms。

Someactualutilityhasbeendiscoveredandrecognised，andnewarticlesthusincorporatedinastandardofconsumption，eitherforregularorspecialuse，haveatanyratesatisfiedapreliminarytestoforganicwelfare。

Ifallnewhabitsofconsumptionaroseinthisfashion，andthepreliminarytestcouldbeconsideredthoroughlyreliable，theeconomyoftheevolutionofstandardsofconsumptionwouldbeasafeandsoundone。Thishypothesisinitsveryformindicatestheseverallinesoferrordiscernibleintheactualevolutionofclassstandards。Afalsificationofthestandard，involvingtheadmissionofwastefulorpositivelynoxiousconsumables，mayarise，eitherintheinitialstageofinvention，orintheprocessofimitativeadoption。Thiswilloccurwherevertheinitialortheimitativeprocessisvitiatedbyanextraneousmotive。Averysmallproportionofmedicinesincustomaryuseamongprimitivepeopleshavetheorganicvalidityofquinine。

Mostofthemare"charms"，inventedbymedicinemen，notastheresulteitherofachanceorplannedexperiment，butastheworkofanimaginationoperatinguponthelinesofanempiricalpsychology，inwhichtherelationoftheactualorknownpropertiesofthemedicinetowardsthediseaseplaynoappreciablepart。

Soawholemagicalpharmacopoeiawillbeerecteduponabasisoftotemistandanimistbeliefs，mingledwithcircumstantialmisconceptionsandgratuitousfabrications，andcontainingnoorganicutility。Eachadditionorvariantwillbeginasanartificialinventionandwillbeadoptedforreasonsofprestige，authorityorfear，carryingnoneofthatorganicconfirmationwhichsecureditspositionforquinine。Thelimitoferrorinsuchcaseswillbethatthemedicinemustnotfrequentlycauseaseriousandimmediateaggravationofthesufferingofthepatient。Thepatentor"conventional"

medicinesamongcivilisedpeoplesmustbeconsideredinthemainascontainingafalsificationofstandardofthesamekind，thoughdifferentindegree。

Astheprimitivemedicineman，calledupontocureafeveroradrought，isprimarilymotivedbythedesiretomaintainorenhancehispersonalorcasteprestige，whiletheadoptionofhisspecificintoaconventionisduetoawhollyirrationalauthorityortoawhollyaccidentalsuccess，soisitwithalargeproportionofmodernremedies。Evenintheorthodoxbranchesofthemedicalprofessiontheprocessofconvertingvagueempiricismintoscientificexperimenthasgonesuchalittlewayastofurnishnoguaranteeforthefullorganicefficacyofmanyofthetreatmentsuponwhichthepatientpublicspendsanincreasingshareofitsincome。Butasregardstheprofessionthereisatanyratesomebasisofconfidenceinthedisinterestedapplicationofsciencetothediscoveryofgenuineorganicutility。

Inthepatentmedicinetradethereisverylittle。Herewehaveaconditionverylittlebetterthanthatofthepowerofthewitch-doctorinprimitivesociety。Themaxim"caveatemptor"carriesvirtuallynosecurity，fortheguidanceofthepalateisruledout，whilethetestofexperience，exceptforpurgationorforsomeequallysimpleandimmediateresult，isnearlyworthless。

§；6。Whentheinventionandpropagationofamodeofconsumptionhavepassedintothehandsofatrade，theguaranteesoforganicutility，thechecksagainstorganicinjury，areattheirweakest。Forneitherprocessisdirected，eitherbyinstinctorreason，alongserviceablechannels。

Wherethecommercialmotivetakestheinitiative，therecanbenoadequatesecuritythatthearticleswhichpassasnewelementsintoastandardofconsumptionshallbewealth，notillth。Whereaninventionisstimulatedtomeetagenuinely"long-feltneed"，thegeneralityanddurationofthatneedmaybeafairguaranteeofutility。Butthisisnotthecasewherethesupplyprecedesandevokesthedemand，themoreusualcaseunderdevelopedcommercialism。Neitherintheactionoftheinventor，norinthespreadofthenewhabitofconsumption，isthereanysafegaugeofutility。Theinventor，orcommercialinitiator，isonlyconcernedwiththequestion，CanImakeandsellasufficientquantityofthisarticleataprofit？

Inordertodoso，itistrue，hemustpersuadeenoughbuyersthatthey"want"thearticleand"want"itmorethansomeotherarticlesonwhichtheyotherwisemightspendtheirmoney。Tounreflectingpersonsthis，nodoubt，appearsasufficienttestofutility。Butisit？Thepurchasermustbemadetofeelorthinkthatthearticleis"good"forhimatthetimewhenitisbroughtbeforehisnotice。Forthispurposeitmustbeendowedwithsomespeciouslyattractiveproperty，orrecommendedaspossessingsuchaproperty。Acheapmercerisedcottoncloth，manufacturedtosimulatesilk，sellsbyitsinherentsuperficialattraction。Anewlineindrapery"pushed"intousebytherepeatedstatement，falseatthebeginning，that"itisworn"，illustratesthesecondmethod。

Inaword，theartsofthemanufacturerandofthevendor，whichhavenodirectrelationwhatevertointrinsicutility，overcomeandsubjugatetheuncertain，untrainedor"artificially"pervertedtasteoftheconsumer。Thusitarisesthatinacommercialsocietyeverystandardofclasscomfortiscertaintocontainlargeingredientsofuselessornoxiousconsumption，articles，notonlybadinthemselves，butoftenpoisoningordistortingthewholestandard。

Theartsofadulterationandofadvertisingareofcourseresponsibleformanyoftheworstinstances。Askilledcombinationofthetwoprocesseshassucceededincancellingthehumanvalueofaverylargeproportionofthenewincrementsofmoneyincomeinthelowermiddleandtheworking-classes，whereagrowingsusceptibilitytonewdesiresisaccompaniedbynointelligentchecksupontheplayofinterestedsuggestionastothemodesofsatisfyingthesedesires。

Wherespeciousfabricationandstrongskilledsuggestioncooperatetoplantnewingredientsinastandardofconsumption，thereisthusnosecurityastotheamountofutilityordisutilityattachingtothe"realincome"representedbythese"goods"。Butthisvitiationofstandardsisnotequallyapplicabletoallgradesofconsumption，ortoallclassesofconsumers。Somekindsofgoodswillbeeasiertofalsifyortoadulteratethanothers，someclassesofconsumerswillbeeasierto"imposeupon"

thanothers。Theseconsiderationswillsetlimitsupontheamountofwasteand"illth"containedinthegoodsandserviceswhichcompriseourrealincome。

First，astotheartsoffalsification。Severallawsoflimitationhereemerge。Somematerials，suchasgoldandrubber，havenoeasilyprocurableandcheapersubstitutesforcertainuses。Othergoodsareinsomeconsiderabledegreeprotectedfromimitationandadulterationbythesurvivalofreliabletestsandtastes，touchandsight，inlargenumbersofconsumers。Thisappliestosimplersortsofgoodswhoseconsumptionisdeepestinthestandardandhasastrongbasisofvitalutility。Itwillbemoredifficulttoadulteratebreadorplainsugartoanylargeextentthansaucesorsweets。Itwillbeeasiertofakephotographsthantopassoffplaiceforsoles。Butitcannotbeassertedasageneraltruththatthenecessariesarebetterdefendedagainstencroachmentsofadulterationandothermodesofdeceptionthanconveniences，andconveniencesthanluxuries。Indeed，therearetwoconsiderationsthattelltheotherway。

Amanufacturerormerchantwhocanpalmoffacheapersubstituteforsomecommonnecessaryoflife，orsomewell-establishedconvenience，hasadoubletemptationtodoso。For，inthefirstplace，themagnitudeandreliabilityofthedemandmakethefalsificationunusuallyprofitable。Inthesecondplace，sofarasalargeproportionofarticlesareconcerned，hecanrelyuponthefactthatmostconsumptionofnecessariesliesbelowthemarginofclearattentionandcriticism。Exceptinthecaseofcertainprimearticlesofdiet，itisprobablethataconsumerismorelikelytodetectsomechangeofqualityinthelatestluxuryaddedtohisstandardthaninthehabitualarticlesofdailyuse，suchashisshoe-leatherorhissoap。Infact，sowellrecognisedisthisprotectionaffordedtothesellerbytheunconsciousnesswhichhabitbringstotheconsumer，that，incateringforquitenewhabits，suchascerealbreakfastfoodsorcigarettes，themanufacturerwaitsuntiltheoriginalattractionsofhisgoodshavestampedthemselvesfirmlyincustomaryuse，beforehedarestolowerthequalityorreducethequantity。

Theseconsiderationsmakeitunlikelythatwecandiscoveraclearlawexpressingtheinjuryofcommercialismintermsofthegreaterorlessorganicurgencyofthewantsministeredtobythedifferentordersofcommodities。

Itwillevenbedifficulttoascertainwhethertheartsofadulterationorfalsesubstitutionplaymorehavocamongthenecessariesthanamongtheluxuriesoflife。Inneitheristhereanyadequatesafeguardfortheorganicworthofthearticlesboughtandsold，thoughinboththeremustbeheldtobeacertainpresumptionfavourabletosomeorganicsatisfactionattendingtheimmediateactofconsumption。Ifa"law"offalsificationcanbefoundatall，itismorelikelytoemergefromacomparativestudynotofnecessaries，conveniences，comfortsandluxuries，inaclassstandard，butofthevarioussortsofsatisfactionsclassifiedinrelationtotheneedswhichunderliethem。Wheregoodsareconsumedassoonastheyarebought，andbysomeprocessinvolvingastrongappealtothesenses，thereislesschanceforvulgarfraudthanwhereconsumptionisgradualorpostponed，andisnotattendedbyanymomentofvividrealisation。Otherthingsequal，onemightexpectmoreeasilytosellshoddyclothingthansimilarlydamagedfood:theadulterationofajerry-builthouseislesseasilydetected，orlessadequatelyreprobated，thanthatofajerry-builtsuitofclothes。

Alongsimilarlineswemight，inconsideringnon-materialconsumption，urgethattherearemoresafeguardsforutilityintheexpenditureuponbooksormusic-hallperformancesthanuponeducationorchurchmembership。

Andinasensethisistrue。IfIbuyabookorattendaconcert，IamsurertogetwhatIregardasaquidproquoformyexpenditurethaninthecaseofaprolongedprocessinvolvingmanysmallconsecutiveacts。

Sofarasthisistrue，itmeansthatrelicsoforganicguidancearemoretrulyoperativeinsomekindsofsatisfactionthaninothers，andfurnishsomebettercheckuponthedeceptionwhichcommercialismmayseektopractise。But，ofcourse，ourvaluationofsuchcheckswilldependuponhowfarwecanacceptthemasreliabletests，notofsomeshort-rangeimmediatesatisfaction，butofthewiderindividualandsocialwelfare。Thefactthatsomanynotoriouslybadhabitscanbeacquiredbyreasonofanimmediate"organic"attractivenessthatisafalsecluetothelargerwelfare，mustputusonourguardagainstacceptinganyeasylawbasedonthetestof"natural"tastes。

§；7。But，inconsideringthedegradationofstandardsofconsumption，itiswelltobringsomecloseranalysistobearupontheprocessesofsuggestionandadoptionthatarecomprisedin"imitation"。Inanalysingtheformsofwealth，thegoodsandservices，whicharetherealincomeofthenation，intermsoftheirproduction，werecognisedthat，otherthingsequal，thehumancostofanybodyofthatwealthvarieddirectlywiththeamountofroutineorpurelyimitativeworkputintoit，andinverselywiththeamountofcreativeorindividualwork。Thatjudgment，however，wefeltboundtoqualifybytheconsiderationthatacertainproportionofroutinework，thoughinitselfperhapsdistastefulanduninteresting，hadanorganicvaluebothfortheindividualandforsociety。

HowfarcanweapplyananalogousjudgmenttothesamebodyofWealthonitsconsumptionside？Canweassumethattheutilityofconsumptionofanygivenbodyofwealthvariesdirectlywiththeamountoffreepersonalexpressionwhichitsuseconnotes，andinverselywiththeroutineorconventionalcharacteritbears？Evidentlynot。Thesameanalysisdoesnotapply。Thechiefreasonforthedifferencehasalreadybeenindicated，bypointingoutthat，inamodernindustrialsociety，eachman，asproducer，ishighlyspecialised，asconsumerhighlygeneralised。Thehighhumancostsofroutineworkwere，wesaw，adirectresultofthisspecialisingprocess。Alittleroutineworkofseveralsorts，regularlypractised，wouldinvolvenoorganiccost，andmightindeedyieldafundofpositiveutilityasawholesomeré；gimeofexercise，provideditwasnotcarriedsofarastoencroachuponthefundofenergyneededfortheperformanceofotherspecialwork，creativeandinteresting。

Indeed，theusualeconomicjustificationoftheexcessivedivisionoflabourexistingatpresentinadvancedindustrialsocietiesisthatitisessentialtoyieldthatlargebodyofobjectivewealthwhich，byitsdistribution，enrichesandgivesvarietytotheconsumptionofallmembersofthesociety。Theproducerissacrificedtotheconsumer，thedamagedonetoeachmaninhisformercapacitybeingmorethancompensatedbythebenefitsconferreduponhiminhislattercapacity。

Thefullvalidityofthisdoctrinewillbeconsideredwhenwegathertogetherthetwosidesofouranalysisandconsidertheinter-relationsbetweenproductionandconsumptionasanaspectoftheproblemofhumanvalues。

Atpresentwemaybeginbyacceptingvarietyofconsumptionasaconditioninitselffavourabletothemaximisationofhumanwelfare。

Thisassumptionisnot，however，quiteself-evident。Theroutinefactorsinastandardofconsumption(andastandardquastandardconsistsofroutine)，sofarastheyarelaiddownunderthedirectionofaninstinctiveorarationalevolutionofwants，mustberegardedascontainingaminimumofwasteordisutility。Sincetheyarealsothefoundationandtheindispensableconditionforallthe"higher"formsofmaterialornon-materialconsumptioninwhichtheconsciouspersonalityofindividualsfindsexpression，theymaybeheldtocontainperunitamaximumofhumanvalue。Fromthisstandpointtherewouldseemtoemergealawoftheeconomyofconsumption，totheeffectthatthemaximumofsocialwelfarewouldbegotfromadistributionofwealthwhichabsorbedtheentireproductinthisroutinesatisfactionofthecommonneedsoflife。Thiseconomyneednotbeconceivedmerelyintermsofauniformstandardofmaterialsatisfactions。Awiderinterpretationoflifeandofnecessariesmightextenditsoastocovermanyhighergradesofsatisfaction，allthe"joysthatareinwidestcommonaltyspread。"Thenaturalevolutionofsuchaneconomyofconsumptionmight，itisarguable，yieldthegreatestquantityofsocialwelfare。

§；8。Butahighuniformlevelofwelfarethroughoutsocietydoesnotexhaustthedemandsofhumanwelfare。Itevidentlyoverstressesthelifeofthesocialasagainsttheindividualorganism，imposingaregimenofequalitywhichabsorbsthemanyintotheone。Now，desiroustoholdthebalancefairbetweentheclaimsofindividualpersonalityandofsociety，wecannotacquiesceinanidealofeconomicalconsumptionwhichmakesnodirectprovisionfortheformer。Sofar，however，astheconsumptionofanindividualisofaroutinecharacter，expressingonlytheneedsofahumannatureheldincommonwithhisfellows，itdoesnotreallyexpresshisindividualityatall。Therealisationoftheuniquevaluesofhispersonality，andtheconscioussatisfactionthatproceedsfromthisindividualexpression，canonlybegotbyactivitieswhichliebeyondthescopeofcustomandconvention。Thoughthisissuehasmostimportantbearingsthatareoutsidetheeconomicfield，itisalsovitallyconnectedwiththeuseofeconomicgoods。For，unlessadueproportionofthegeneralincome(theaggregateofgoodsandservices)isplacedatthefreedisposalofindividualsinsuchformsastonourishandstimulatethewholesomeandjoyousexpansionoftheirpowers，thatsocialprogresswhichfirstmanifestsitselfinthefreeexperimentalandcreativeactionsofindividualswhosenaturesvaryinsomefineandserviceablewayfromthecommonlife，willbethwarted。

Thisbringsustoabetterunderstandingofthenatureandoriginofthehumaninjuryandwastecontainedinlargesectionsofthatconventionalconsumptionwhichplayssolargeandsodepressingapartineveryclassstandardofcomfort。

Wheretheproductionofaneconomicsocietyhasgrownsofarastoyieldaconsiderableandagrowingsurplusbeyondthatrequiredforsurvivalpurposes，thissurplusisliabletoseveralabuses。Insteadofbeingappliedasfoodandstimulustothephysicalandspiritualgrowthofindividualandsociallife，itmaybesquandered，eitheruponexcessivesatisfactionofexistingroutinewantsinanyclassorclasses，orinthestimulationandsatisfactionofmoreroutinewantsandtheevolutionofacomplexconventionalstandardofconsumption，containinginitsnewfactorsadiminishingamountofhumanutilityorevenanincreasingamountofhumancosts。Iftheindustrialstructureissuchthatparticulargroupsofbusinessmencanmakeprivategainsbystimulatingnewwastefulmodesofconventionalconsumption，thisprocess，aswehaveseen，isgreatlyfacilitated。

But，afterall，thebusinessmotiveisnotinitselfanadequateexplanation。

Businessfirmssuggestnewwants，butthesusceptibilitytosuchsuggestions，theactiveimitationbywhichanewarticlepassesintotheconventionalconsumptionofagrouporclass，requirescloserconsideration。Falsificationofastandardcanseldombeunderstoodasamereperversionofthefreechoiceofindividuals。Aconventionisnotproducedbyamerecoincidenceofseparatechoices。Imitationplaysanimportantpartinthecontagionandinfectionofexample。Inendeavouringtoassessthehumanutilityoftheconsumptionofwealthweseetheplayofseveralimitativeforces。

CurrentPrestige，Tradition，Authority，Fashion，Respectabilitysupplementoroftendisplacetheplayofindividualtaste，goodorbad，inmouldingaclassandfamilystandardofconsumption。Thepsychologyandsociologyofthesedistinctivelyimitativeforceswhichformorchangestandardsareexceedinglyobscure。

Themerelygregariousinstinctmayleadtothespreadinaclassorgroupofanynoveltywhichattractsattentionandisnotoffensive。Wheresupportedbyanyelementofpersonalprestige，suchnovelty，irrespectiveofitsrealvirtuesoruses，mayspreadandbecomeembeddedinastandardofconsumption。Thebeginningsofeveryfashionlargelybelongtothisorderofimitation。Someprestigeisusuallyneededfairlytolaunchanewfashion；oncelauncheditspreadsmainlyby"gregariousness"，theinstincttobe，orlook，oract，likeotherpeople。Thelimitsoferror，disutilityorinconvenience，whichcanbesetuponanoveltyoffashion，appeartodependmainlyupontheinitialforceofprestige。TheKingmightintroduceintoLondonsocietyareallyinconvenienthighhat，thoughtheQueenperhapscouldnotcarryafullrevivalofthecrinoline。

Fashionschangebuttheyleavedepositsofconventionalexpenditurebehind。Whatisatfirstfashionableoftenremainsasrespectableandliveslongintheconventionalhabitsofaclass。Everyclassstandardisencrustedwithlittleelementsofdeadfashion。

§；9。ButthisformativeinfluenceofPrestigeitselfdemandsfullerconsideration。Foritnotmerelyimplantselementsofexpenditureinthestandardofconsumption，butinfectsthestandarditself。

Atruestandardwouldrestonabasisoforganicutility，expenditurebeingapportionedsoastopromotethesoundest，fullesthumanlife。Butallconventionalconsumptionisdeterminedlargelybyvaluationsimposedbytheclasspossessingmostprestige。Itis，ofcourse，acommonplacethatfashionsindress，andincertainexternalmodesofconsumption，descendbysnobbishimitationfromhighlifethroughthedifferentsocialstrata，eachclasscopyingtheclassabove。Itisamatteroffarmorevitalimportancethatreligion，ethics，art，literatureandthewholerangeofintellectualactivities，manners，amusements，taketheirshapesandvalueslargelybythesameprocessofinfiltrationfromabove。

Thisisnotthecaseeverywhere。Inmanynationsthedistinctionsofcaste，class，localityoroccupation，aresostrongastoprecludethepassageofhabitsofmaterialconsumption，manners，tastesandideas，fromonesocialstratumtoanother。Theexclusivepossessionofacodeoflife，oflanguage，thoughtandfeelingsbyacasteorclass，isitselfamatterofpride，andoftenoflegalprotection。ThisholdsnotonlyofmostAsiaticcivilisationsbut，thoughlessrigorously，ofthoseEuropeancountrieswhichhavenotbeenfullysubjectedtothedissolvingforcesofindustrialism。

ButinsuchcountriesasEnglandandtheUnitedStates，wheretheindustrialartsarerapidlyevolvingnewproductsandstimulatingnewtastes，andwhereatthesametimethesocialstratapresentacontinuousgradationwithmuchmovementfromonestratumtoanother，theprocessofStationbyprestigeisveryrapidandgeneral。

Theactualexpenditureoftheincomeofeveryclassinthesecountriesisverylargelydetermined，notbyorganicneeds，butbyimitationoftheconventionalconsumptionoftheclassimmediatelyaboveinincomeorinsocialesteem。Thatconventionalconsumptioninitsturnisformedbyimitationoftheclassabove。Thearistocracy，plutocracy，orclasswithmostpowerorprestige，thusmakesthestandardsfortheotherclasses。

Now，evenifitwerearealaristocracy，acompanyofthebest，itbynomeansfollowsthatastandardoflivinggoodforthemwouldbeequallygoodforothersocialgrades。Buttherewouldbeatleastastrongpresumptioninitsfavour。Tocopygoodexamples，evenifthecopyingisdefective，isanelevatingpractice，andinasmuchastheessentialsofhumanityarefoundalikeinall，thoughtlessimitationofone"sbettersmightraiseone"sownstandard。Ifinasocietythemenoflightandleadingoccupiedthisplacebecausetheyhaddiscoveredageniusfortheartofnobleliving，theswiftunconsciousimitationoftheirmodeoflife，themoralsandmannersofthisaristocracy，wouldsurelybethefinestschoolingforthewholepeople:themodelsofthegood，thetrue，thebeautiful，whichtheyafforded，wouldinformeachlowergrade，accordingtoitscapacity。

Butwherethewholeforcesofprestigeandimitationaresetonashamaristocracy，copyingascloselyaspossibletheirmodesofconsumption，theirwaysofthoughtandfeeling，theirvaluationsandideals，incalculabledamageandwastemayensue。Forthedefectsinthestandardoftheupperfewwill，byimitation，bemagnifiedaswellasmultipliedinthelowerstandardsofthemany。Letmeillustrate。

Ifgamblingisbadfortheupperclasses，itsimitationbecomesprogressivelyworseasitdescends，poisoningthelifeandconsumingalargerproportionofthediminishingmarginoftheincomeofeachclass。Iftheinconvenienceofdecorativedressisbadforrichwomen，wholivealifeofeaseandleisure，itsimitationbytheactivehousewivesofthemiddle，andthewomen-workersofthelowerclasses，inflictsagraverdisutility。Forthewasteofincomeismoreinjuriousandthephysicalimpedimentstolibertyofmovementaremoreonerous。Itistheimmeasurableimportanceofthisprestigeoftheupperclass，percolatingthroughalllowersocialgrades，andimposing，notmerelyelementsofconventionalconsumption，butstandardsandideasoflifewhichaffectthewholemodeofliving，thatrequiresustogivecloserconsiderationtothelifeoftheleisureclass。

§；10。HerewecanfindvaluableaidinaremarkablebookentitledTheTheoryoftheLeisureClass，byMr。Veblen，anAmericansociologist。