第7章

Regardedasascientificstudy，whichitrightlyclaimstobe，thisbookhastwoconsiderabledefects，oneofmanner，oneofmatter。Itsanalysisisconductedwithahalf-humorousparadeofpompousterminologyapttowearuponthetemperofthereader。Itsexaggeratedstressuponasinglestrainofpersonality，asadominantinfluenceintheformationofhabitsandthedirectionofconduct，isamoreseriousblemishinaworkofprofoundandpenetratingpower。Butforourpresentpurpose，thatofdiscoveringtheelementsofwasteinnationalconsumption，itisoffirst-rateimportance。

Mr。Veblen"smainlineofargumentmaybesummarisedasfollows。Inprimitivesocietywarandthechasewillbethechiefmeansbywhichmenmaysatisfythatcravingforpersonaldistinctionandimportancewhichisthemostenduringandimportunateofpsychicaldesires。Personalprocess，mainlyphysical，displayedinfightorhunt，willsecureleadershiporascendencyintriballife。Sothosetrophieswhichattestsuchprowess，theskullsorscalpsofenemies，theskinsofslainanimals，orthelivepossessionoftameanimals，willbethemosthighly-prizedformsofproperty。

Whenthecaptureandenslavementofenemieshastakentheplaceofpromiscuousslaughter，thesizeandvarietyofhisretinueofslavesforpersonalservice，concubinage，ormerelydecorativeshow，attestthegreatnessofthewarrior-chief。

Whentheindustrialartsaresufficientlydeveloped，slaveswillbesettoproducesuchotherformsofproperty，enlargedhousing，quantitiesofshowygarments，cultivatedfields，herdsofcattle，asaffordconspicuousevidenceofthepersonalprowessofthechief。Glory，farmorethanutilityorcomfort，continuestobethedominantmotive。

Ascivilisationbeginstomakeway，thenotionofwhatconstitutespersonalprocessbeginstobemodified。Thoughphysicalforcemaystillremainachiefingredient，skillandcunning，wisdomincounsel，capacityforcommandandlaw-making，cometoberecognisedasalsogivingprestige。

Asnotonlythestrongmanbyhisstrength，butthecunningmanbyhiscunning，cangetthatwealthorpropertywhicharetheinsigniaofprowess，propertywillhoweverstillbevaluedbyitsownermainlyfortheprestigeitaffordshimamonghisfellows。Itwillstillforthemostparttakeshapeinexternalformsofadornmentormagnificence。Asitdevelopsintotheculminatingformoftheorientalcourt，theelementofdisplaywillremaintheparamountconsideration，towhicheventhesense-enjoymentsoftheownerwillbesecondary。

Theeffectofthisearlylinkingofpropertytopersonalprowesswillbethatinthegeneralmindofmanthepossessionofpropertyishonorific。

Itsecuresforitsownerapresumptionofpersonalgreatness。Therefore，itspossessionmustbekeptinfullandconstantevidence，especiallywhereinheritancedestroysthedirectpresumptionofthepersonalprowessoftheactualowner。Hencethetwoessentialfeaturesofthemodeoflivingofthedominantclassorcaste，ostentatiouswasteandconspicuousleisure。

Forthustheprestigeofpropertyisbestenforced。Gorgeouspalaceswithluxuriousgrounds，magnificentbanquetsandentertainments，extravagantrefinementsofsensualluxury，adornmentsoffabrics，jewelsandarticlesoflaboriousskill，magnificenttombsandothermonuments——theelaborateparadeofwaste，inordertofastenonthecommonimaginationthesenseofwonderandofadmirationofthepersonwhocouldaffordsolavishawaste!Thefamilyoftherichmanischieflyvaluedasaninstrumentformakingthisdisplayeffective。Hiswifeorwivesmustdonowork，notevencopyhisparasiticactivities；theymuststandasopenmonumentsofconspicuousleisure，theirpersonaladornments，theirretinuesofservants，theentireelaborateritualoftheirfutilelives，mustbedevotedtoshowinghowmuchtheirpossessorcanaffordtocaste。Suchwasthelifeofthearistocracyinoldenandmedievaldays!

Ithaspassedinmostessentials，bytraditionandimitation，tothelifeoftheupperclassinmoderncivilisednations。Themodesandconceptionsofpersonalprowessandprestigehaveindeedshifted。Themanofbusinesshasdethronedthewarriororthepoliticalchieftain。Thetypicalgreatmanofourtimeisthegreatentrepreneur，thefinancierwhodirectstheflowofcapitalandrulespricesonchange，therailwayorshippingmagnatewhoplansacombine，theableandastutemerchant，whocontrolsamarket，themanufacturerwhoconductsagreatproductivebusiness，theorganiserofasuccessfuldepartmentalstore。Thepersonalqualitiesandactivitiesinvolvedinthesetasksareverydifferentfromthosepossessedbybarbarianchieftainsororientaldespots。

Addtosuchmenthesurvivinglandedaristocracyofrentreceivers，andaconsiderablenumberoffamiliesthatliveondividends，takingnorealpartintheadministrationofindustry，andwehaveasynopsisoftheclasswhichtodaywieldsprestige。Thoughtheelaborationofmodernartsofpleasuredirectsagreatpartoftheexpenditureofthis，ourupperclass，thetraditionalhabitsofostentatiouswasteandconspicuousleisureasmodesofgloryarestillparamountmotives。Mostrichpeoplevaluericheslessforthepleasurestheyaffordthanforthesocialconsideration，thepersonaldistinction，theyprocure。Thecravingtorealisesuperiorityoverothers，asattestedbytheirservilityorimitation，thepowerofmoneytomakeothersdoyourwill，thesenseoffreedomtorealiseeverypassingcaprice，theseremainthechiefvalueofriches，andmouldthevaluationsoflifeforthebulkofthewell-to-do。

Sucharetheinevitableeffectsofeasily-gottenandexcessivewealthuponthepossessors。Sofarastheyoperate，theyinducefutileextravaganceinexpenditure。Insteadofmakingforutility，theymakefordisutilityofconsumption。Suchisthegistofthisanalysisoftheleisuredlife。

§；11。Expenditurewhichistobeeffectivelyostentatious，soastoimpressitsmagnificenceuponthelargestnumberofotherpeople，cannotbedirectedtothesatisfactionofarealpersonalwant，evenabadwant。

Futilityisofitsessence。Theverytypeofthisexpenditureisadisplayoffireworks:thereisnootherwayofconsumingsolargeaquantityofwealthinsoshortatimewithsuchsensationalpublicityandwithnoenduringeffectwhatever。Thisprivateextravagancemayperhapsbeparalleledinpublicexpenditurebythesquanderingofmillionsuponwar-shipswhicharenotneeded，willneverbeused，andwillbeobsoletewithinafewyearsoftheirconstruction。

Thedefectswhicheverysanesocialcriticfindsinthemodesoflivingoftherich，theirfrivolity，trivialityandfutility，areillustrationsofMr。Veblen"sthesis。Perhapsthelargestcomplexofformsoffutilewaste，wasteofmoneyandoftime，iscontainedintheperformanceofwhat，withcuriousaptnessofphrase，aretermed"socialduties"，theidleroundofvisits，entertainmentsandfunctionswhichconstitutesthe"societylife"。Ispeakoftheaptnessoftheterm"socialduties"。Thisisnoparadox，butmerelythefinestinstanceofthatperversionofvaluesandvaluationswhichisinherentinthesituation。Foritisessentialtotheaccuracyofthisanalysisthattherichmembersofsocietyshouldregardtheirmostfutileactivitiesas"duties"，andtheirsmallsectionofhumanityas"society"。

Oftheexpenditurewhichislaidoutonthesatisfactionofmaterialwants，thewasteordisutilitywilloftenbeconsiderable。ButNatureisstrongenoughtoenforcesomesenseandmoderationinthesatisfactionofprimaryorganicdesires。While，therefore，thereismuchluxuryandwasteinthematerialstandardofcomfortoftherich，wedoquitewrongtofindinfoodandclothingandothermaterialconsumptionourchiefinstancesofluxuryandwaste。Itisinthenon-materialexpenditurethattheproportionofwasteordisutilityislargest。Thegreatmorallaw，corruptiooptimipessima，requiresthatthisbeso。Ifweseekthelargestsourcesofinjuriouswasteinthestandardofthewell-to-doclasses，weshallfindthemintheexpenditureuponrecreation，educationandcharity。

NOTES:

1。OnthesideofConsumptionasofProductionaprogressivesocietythathasnotabandoneditselftoexcessiverationalismwillrecognisethedesirabilityofkeepingascopefor"bonnechance"and"hazard"。CfTarde。

I。，p。130。

2。Thoughtheterm"conventional"appearsformallytoprecludetheplayofindividualtasteorjudgment，itisinfactonlyinsuchexpendituresthatthesequalitiesobtainscopeforexpression。Forthoughconventionprescribesthegeneralmodeofsuchexpenditure，itleavesafarlargerscopeforpersonalchoiceandcapriciousvariationthaninthemorenecessaryelementsofexpenditure。CHAPTERXI:SPORT，CULTUREAND

CHARITY

§；1。Itisnomerechancethatmakessportthespecialfieldfortheattainmentanddisplayofpersonalprestigeamongthewell-to-doclasses。

Primitivemaninhisearlystruggleforlifehadtoputallhispowersofbodyandmind，allhisstrengthandcunning，intothequick，sure，anddistantdiscoveryofbeastsorothermenwhowoulddestroyhim。Hemustpursueandkillthem，orsuccessfullyavoidthem。Hemustseekoutanimalorvegetablefoods，trackingthembysignsandsnares，rapidoffoot，keenofeyeandscent，quick，strong，andaccurateofgrasp。Torunandspring，toclimbandswimandstrikeandthrowwerenecessaryhumanaccomplishments。

Theyhadahighsurvivalvalue。Naturehadtoevolveandmaintainamanwhohadthecapacitytodothesethingswell，andwhowaswillingtoundergothenecessarytoilandpainofacquiringandexercisingtheseartsandcrafts。Toride，toshoot，tomanageboats，wereoccupationsofprimeutility。

Successfulmatingwasalsonecessaryforsurvival，andsotheartsofcourtship，dancing，music，decoration，andvariousdisplaysofgraceandvigourwereevolved。Thesimpleactivitiesthatwereelaboratedintotheseartsofhunting，fighting，mating，wereinstinctive，andstrongfeelingsofpleasurewereattachedtothem，asNature"slure。Whenreason，orconsciouscunning，cametocooperatewithinstinct，complicatingandrefiningtheusefularts，thespecificpleasuresofinstinctivesatisfactionwereaccompaniedbyageneralsenseofpersonalelationorpride。Now，inman，asinotheranimals，practicewasneededforthesuccessfulperformanceoftheseusefulactivities。Thispracticetakestheformofplay，amoreorlessrealisticsimulationofthepracticesoffighting，hunting，courtship，inwhich，however，considerablescopeexistsforvariationsandsurprises，thesurvivalvalueofwhichisreal，thoughindirect。Sincetheseformsofplayappealtoandexercisethesameactivitiesasareinvolvedintheseriousaffairsoflife，thesamesortsofsatisfactionareattachedtothem。Thenaturalmeaningofplayisthatitisapreparationforwork，i。e。，forthearduous，painful，andoftendangeroustasksinvolvedin"thestruggleoflife，"

andthepleasureofplayistheinducementtotheacquisitionofthisusefulskill。

§；2。Ifthisbeso，itmaybepossibleforsomementosuckthepleasurefromtheplaywithoutperformingtheusefulworkforwhichitisapreparation。Theplayinstinctscanbemadetoyieldadesirablelifeofinterestandpleasuretoanyclassofmenwhoareenabledtogetotherstoperformtheirshareofusefulwork，andthustoprovidethemwiththetime，energyandmaterialmeansfortheelaborationoftheplaysideoflife。Suchisthephysicalexplanationofthesportsman。TheplaywhichNaturedesignedasmeanstolife，hetakesasanend，andlives"asportinglife"。Someofhissportsbearonthesurfacefewsignsofbiologicalplayaboutthem。Themanualandmentaldexterityofsuchindoorgamesasbridgeandbilliards，appearquiteunrelatedtothearduouspursuitsofmountaineeringorbig-gamehunting。Betweenthesetwoliethegreatmajorityofactivesports，suchasshooting，racing，andthevariousgamesofball。

Noonewhoanalysescarefullythefeelingsofpleasuregotfromaboundaryhit，arunwiththeball，aneck-to-neckrace，oranyotherathleticachievement，candoubttheirnature。

Fighting，hunting，fishing，climbing，exploring，reducedtosports，containjustasmuch"realism"asisneededtoevokethepleasurableexcitementwhichsustainedtheseskilfuleffortswhentheybelongedtothestruggleforlife。Someoftheimitationsmaybesoclosetorealityastorecallinalmostitsfullintensitytheprimalthrill，asintiger-stalking，inboxing，orrockclimbing。Inball-gamesthefictitiouscircumstancescallformoreimagination，thoughthepleasureoftheactualstrokeischieflyaracememoryofablowstruckatanenemyorofablowwardedoff。Noonecandoubtthenatureofthefiercepleasureofthefootballscrimmagewithitsmortalmake-believe。

Althoughinmanysportssomeelementofphysicalriskisneededtosustaintherealism，itisusuallyreducedtotriflingdimensions。Thisisalsotrueofthepainfulenduranceincidentaltotheprimitivestruggle。

Themodernsportsmanorexplorercommonlydeviseswaysofeconomisingbothhispersonalriskandhispersonaleffort。Beatersfindtheanimalorbirdforhimtoshoot；nativeportersandguidescarryfoodforhim，andeasehispath。Hisobjectistosecurethemaximumpleasureofachievementwiththeminimumriskandeffort。Perhapsthemosthighly-elaboratedexampleistheplayfulrevivalofthemigratoryandexploringinstincts，fromthepicnictotheworld-tour，withthecomplexapparatusofpleasure-travelwhichoccupiessolargeapartinthelifeofthewell-to-doclasses。Theluxuriouslifeoftravelinwhichthemotor-car，thetraindeluxe，ortheyachtcarriesmenandwomenfromthegorgeoushotelofonebeautyspottothatofanother，ismadepleasurableortolerablebywakingupthedimshadowofsomewanderingancestor，whosehuntingorpastoralhabitsrequiredsomesatisfactiontoevokethelife-preservingeffort。Camping-outandcaravanningaresomewhatmorerealisticreproductions，bringinginmoreofthegregariousorcorporateinstinctofthetribe。

Howsubtlearetheartificesbywhichhumancunningseekstoexploitthepastisbestillustrated，however，inthepurelyspectatorialorsympatheticsurroundingsofsport。Toplayfootballisoneremovefrombattle，towatchthegameistworemoves，towatchthe"tape"orfollowthescoresinthenewspapersisthreeremoves。Yetmillionsoflittlethrillsofsatisfactionaregotfromthissimulationofasimulatedfight。Blendedinvariousdegreeswithotherzests，ofhazard，ofpettycunning，andavarice，wherebettingentersintosport，thesportinginterestrankshighestofallinthescaleofvaluesamongtheable-bodiedmalesofallclassesinEnglish-speakingpeoples。

Addedtothepleasurefromtheoutputofstrengthorskillinsportisthegeneralsentimentofexultation，thesenseofglory。Towhatmustthatbeattributed？Nottothemagnitudeofthestrengthorskill。Anavvymaydisplaygreaterstrengthorenduranceinhiswork，atrapperoracommonfishermanafinerskillincatchinghisprey。Butthetruegloryofsportsmanshipisdeniedthem。Why？Becausetheirworkisuseful，andtheyaredoingitforaliving。Thegloryofthesuccessfulsportsmanisduetothefactthathisdeedsarefutile。Andthisconspicuousfutilityisattherootofthematter。Thefactthathecangivetime，energy，andmoneytosporttestifiestohispossessionofindependentmeans。Hecanaffordtobeanidler，andthemoreobviouslyuselessandexpensivethesport，thehighertheprestigeattachingtoit。

Hispersonalgloryofstrength，endurance，orskillissetinthisaureoleofparasitism。Thecrucialtestofthisinterpretationisverysimple。LetitturnoutthataMarathonwinner，whoseemedtobeagentleman，wasreallyaprofessional，whatadropinhispersonalprestige!Theprofessionalisamanwhohastoearnaliving，hisreputationasasportsmanisdamagedbythatfact。Cantherebeanymoreconvincingproofthatthehighprestigeofsportisduetotheevidenceoffinancialprowesswhichitaffords？

Thehuntingandthefightinginstinctsevidentlyunderliethepleasureofnearlyalltheexclusivelymalesports。Doubtlessotherinstinctivesatisfactionsenterin，suchasthegregariousinstinctwithitsconsciouselaborationofespritdecorps。Wheneveranygameorsportbringsthesexesintorelationwithoneanother，thematinginstinctsareevidentlyinvolved。

Thecrossingofwarwithsexinthetheoryandpracticeofchivalrywasaconsciousandartisticblendingofthesepleasuremotives。

Butthistreatmentofsportasafrivolouspursuitofpleasureignoresoneimportantaspect。Sport，itwillbeurged，afterallhashealthforitspermanentutility。Itisexerciseforthebodyanddiversionforthemind。Itwardsoffthenaturalconsequencesofthepurelyparasiticlife，whichaprivateincomerenderspossible，byprovidingwork-substitutes。

Theprimallaw，"inthesweatofthyfaceshaltthoueatbread，"isgracefullyevadedbygamesthatincludeagentleperspiration。Golfmaytaketheplaceofspade-labourtowinappetiteanddigestion；bridgewillsavethebrainfromabsolutestagnation。SoNature"sself-protectivecunningelaboratesthesemodesofsham-work。

§；3。Thesocialcondemnationofasporting-lifeistwo-fold。Inthefirstplace，itdivertsintolowerformsofactivitythezestsandinterestsintendedtopromotealifeofworkandart。Thesporting-lifeandstandardschokethefinerarts。Thesportsmanandthegamesterarebaserartistschoosingthelowerinsteadofthehighermodesofself-realisationinmanualandintellectualskill。Thismaintenanceofbarbarianstandardsofvaluesbytheclassespossessingsocialprestigeisagreatobstacletothedevelopmentofscience，art，andliterature。Inthesecondplace，sportspoilsthespontaneityandlibertyofplay，whichisanecessityofeveryhealthylife。Itspoilsitforthesportsmanbyreasonofitsartificialityanditsexcess。Forthesporting-lifedoesnotsatisfythosewhopractiseit。ItcarriestheNemesisofboredom。Thesenseoftrivialityandoffutilitygraduallyeatsthrough，andthemake-believerealism，whenconfrontedwiththeseriousvaluesoflife，showsitsemptiness。

Aheaviersocialdamageistheeconomiccostwhichtheexpensivefutilityimposes。

Forsportinvolvesthelargestdiversionofunearnedincomeintounproductiveexpenditure。Notonlydoesitdedicatetoextravagantwastealargershareoftheland，thelabour，andtheenterpriseofmenthananyotherhumanerror，unlessitbewaritself，butitstealstheplay-timeofthemanytomaketheover-leisureofthefew。Iftheparasiticpowerwhichsustainsthesporting-lifeweretakenaway，theworldwouldnotbedullerormoreserious。Onthecontrary，playwouldbemoreabundant，freer，morevaried，andlessartificialinitsmodes。

Theidentificationofasportsmanwithagentlemanhascarriedgreatweightintheunconscioussettlingofsocialvalues，andinEnglandhasbeensubtlyserviceableasasentimentalsafeguardagainsttheattacksupontheeconomicsupportsnotonlyoflandlordismbutofotherwealthwhichhascovereditselfwiththetrappingsofsport。

Therelativeprestigeofotheroccupationsisdeterminedtoaconsiderableextentbytheirassociationwiththesporting-lifeorwiththeoriginalactivitieswhichsportreproduces。Notonlytheidlelandowner，buttheyeoman，andinalessdegreethetenantfarmer，enjoyasocialconsiderationbeyondthemeasureoftheirpecuniarystanding，byvirtueoftheopportunitiesforhuntingandothersportwhichtheyenjoy。Partofthereputationofthemilitaryandthenavalservicesisexplainedbythesurvivalofthebarbarianfeelingthatalifeofhazardandrapinecontainsfineropportunitiesforphysicalprowessthanalifeofproductiveactivity。Thoughagooddealofthisprestigebelongstothegloryof"command"andextendseventoagreatemployeroflabour，theglamourofthesoldier"s，hunter"s，sportsman"slifehangsinalessdegreeaboutallwhoseoccupations，howeverservile，keeptheminclosecontactwiththesebarbarianactivities。A

publican，aprofessionalcricketer，astud-groom，agamekeeper，enjoyamongtheircompanionsadignityderivedfromtheirassociationwiththesporting-life。

§；4。Ifphysicalrecreationsthuscarryprestige，soinalessdegreeandincertaingradesofsocietydointellectualrecreations。Onceasportsmanalonehadaclaimtoberegardedasagentleman。Onlyincomparativelymoderntimesdidtheassociationof"ascholarandagentleman"seemplausible。

Evennowprowessofthemindcanseldomcompeteinglorywithprowessofthebody。Thevaluationofachievementscurrentinourpublic-schoolspersists，thoughwithsomeabatement，amongallsortsandconditionsofmen。Butasmentalskillbecomesmoreandmorethemeansofattainingthatfinancialpowerwhichisthemoderninstrumentofpersonalglory，itrisesinsocialesteem。Asmanners，address，mentalabilityandknowledgemoreandmoredeterminepersonalsuccess，intellectualstudiesbecomeincreasinglyreputable。

Itmightappearatthefirstsightthatthehighestreputationwouldattachtothoseabilitiesandstudieswhichhadthehighestmediateutilityformoney-making。Butherethebarbarianstandardretainsadeflectinginfluence。Topossessmoneywhichyouhavenotmadestillcontinuestobefarmorehonorificthantomakemoney。Formoney-making，unlessitbebylootorgambling，involvesaddictiontoabusinesslifeinsteadofthelifeofaleisuredgentleman。Soitcomestopassthatstudiesarevaluedmorehighlyasdecorativeaccomplishmentsthanasutilities。Amanwhocanhaveaffordedtoexpendlongyearsinacquiringskillorknowledgewhichhasnopracticaluse，therebyannouncesmostdramaticallyhispossession，orhisfather"spossession，ofanincomeenablinghimtoleadthelifeofanindependentgentleman。Thescaleofculture-valuesislargelydirectedbythisconsideration。Thusnotonlythechoiceofsubjectsbutthemodeoftreatmentintheeducationofthechildrenofthewell-to-dois，generallyspeaking，ininverseratiototheirpresumedutility。Theplaceofhonouraccordedtodeadlanguagesis，ofcourse，themostpatentexample。GreatasthemeritsofGreekandLatinmaybeforpurposesofintellectualandemotionaltraining，theirpredominanceisnotmainlydeterminedbytheirmerits，butbythetraditionalreputewhichhasmadethemthechoseninstrumentsforaparadeof"useless"culture。

Thoughsomeattemptismadeinrecenttimestoextractfromtheteachingofthe"classics"thefinerqualitiesofthe"humanities"whichtheycontain，thishasinvolvedarevoltagainstthepure"scholarship"whichsoughttoexcludeevensuchrefinedutilitiesandtoconfinethestudyoftheclassicstoagraceful，skilfulhandlingoflinguisticformsandapurelysuperficialtreatmentofthethoughtandknowledgecontainedinthechosenliterature。Itissignificantthatevento-day"culture"primarilycontinuestoimplyknowledgeoflanguagesandliteratureasaccomplishments，andthat，thoughmathematicsandnaturalsciencesentermorelargelyintotheacademiccurriculum，theycontinuetoranklowerasstudiesintheeducationofourwealthyclasses。

MostconvincinginitstestimonytotheformationofintellectualvaluesisthetreatmentofhistoryandmodernEnglishliterature。Althoughforallpurposesofcultureandutility，itmighthavebeensupposedthatthestudyofthethought，art，andeventsofourownnationandourowntimes，wouldbeofprimeimportance，virtuallynoplaceisgiventothesesubjects。

Historyandliterature，sofarastheyfigureatall，aretreatednotinrelationtothelifeoftoday，butasdeadmatter。Othersubjectsofstrictlyvitalutility，suchasphysiologyandhygiene，psychologyandsociology，findnoplacewhateverinthegeneraleducationofourschoolsanduniversities，occupyingatimidpositionas"special"subjectsincertainprofessionalcourses。

Pedagoguessometimespretendthatthisexclusionof"utility"testsforthesubjectsandthetreatmentinoursystemofeducationrestsuponsoundeducationalprinciples，inthat，ignoringtheshort-rangeutilitieswhichacommercialorother"practical"trainingdesiderates，theycontributetoadeeperandapurertrainingoftheintellectualfaculties。Buthavingregardtothepartplayedbytraditionandecclesiasticalauthorityintheestablishmentofpresent-dayeducationalsystems，itcannotbeadmittedthattheyhavemadeaseriouscasefortheappraisementofstudiesaccordingtotheirhumanvalues。Probablyourhighereducation，properlytested，wouldbefoundtocontainafarlargerwasteofintellectual"efficiency"

thanourfactorysystemofeconomicefficiency。Andthiswasteisprimarilyduetotheacceptanceandsurvivalofbarbarianstandardsofculture，imperfectlyadjustedtothemodernconditionsoflife，andchieflysustainedbythedesiretoemploythemindfordecorativeandrecreative，ratherthanforproductiveorcreativepurposes。Art，literatureandsciencesufferimmeasurablelossesfromthismisgovernmentofintellectuallife。

Thenetresultisthatthevastmajorityofthesonsanddaughtersevenofourwell-to-doclassesgrowupwithanexceedinglyfaultyequipmentofusefulknowledge，notrainedabilitytousetheirintellectsorjudgmentsfreelyandeffectively，andwithnostrongdesiretoattempttodoso。Theythusremainorbecomethedupesofshallowtraditions，orequallyshallownovelties，undertheguiseofscientific，philosophic，economicorpoliticalprincipleswhichtheyhaveneithertheenergyofmindnorthedesiretotest，butwhichtheypermittodirecttheirlivesandconductinmattersofsupremeimportancetothemselvesandothers。

Aseducationiscomingtotakealargerplaceasanorganisedoccupation，andmoretime，moneyandenergyareclaimedforit，thenecessityofarevaluationofintellectualvaluesonasanebasisofhumanismbecomesmoreexigentthanever。Forthereisadangerofanewbastardculturespringingup，theproductofablendingofthebarbarianculture，descendingbyimitationoftheupperclasses，withatoonarrowlyutilitarianstandardimprovisedtoconvertworking-classchildrenintocheapclerksandshopmen。

Ourhigh-schoolsandlocaluniversitiesarealreadyvictimstothismé；salliancebetween"culture"and"business"，andthetreatmentofnotafewstudies，historyandeconomicsinparticular，issubjecttonovelrisks。

§；5。Dilettantismistheintellectualequivalentofsport。Whatisthemoralequivalent？Thesporting-lifehasanethicsofitsown，theessenceofwhichliesineschewingobligationswithlegalorothercompulsoryexternalsanctions，infavourofavoluntarycodeembodyingthemutualfeelingsofmembersofasuperiorcaste。Inanaristocracyoftruesportsmenhonestyandsexual"morality"aredespisedasbourgeoisvirtues，whilejusticeistoocompulsoryandtooequalitarianforacceptance。Honourtakestheplaceofhonesty，goodformofmorals，fair-playandcharityofjustice。

Itisthecodeofthebarbariansupermanorchieftain，qualified，softenedandcomplicatedtosuittheconditionsofthemodernplay-life。Courageandendurance，fidelity，generosityandmercyarehisvirtues:temperance，modesty，humility，gratitude，havenoproperplaceinsuchacode，whichisindeedbaseduponafreeexerciseofthephysicalfunctionsforpersonalpleasureandglory。

Thehazardbelongingtoasportinglifemakesforsuperstition。Nobodyismorecrudelysuperstitiousthanthegambler，andeverybodytowhomlifeisprimarilyagameconceivesofitasproceedingbyruleswhichmaybeevadedortamperedwith。Thisaspectofthesportingcharactergavethepriestlycasteitschiefopportunitytogetpower。Sopietismwasgraftedonthesportsmanandthefighting-man，andreligionkeptaholdontherulingandpossessingclasses，adaptingitsmoralteachingtohiscase。

ThewidedivergenceofBritishChristianityfromtheteachingofthegospelsfindsitschiefexplanationinthisnecessityofadaptation。Itsdoctrinesanditsdisciplinehadtobemouldedsoastofitthecharacterandconductofpowerfulmen，whonotonlywouldrepudiateitsinnerspiritualteaching，butwhoselust，pride，crueltyandtreachery，thenaturaloutcomeoftheiranimallife，wereconstantlyleadingthemtoviolatetheverycodeofhonourtheyprofessed。Asindustryandproperty，peaceandorder，becamemoresettledandwide-spread，therecameupfrombelowapowerfulcommercialclass，whoseeconomicandsocialrequirementsevolvedamoralityinwhichtheso-calledpuritanvirtuesofindustry，thrift，honesty，temperance，sexualpurity，prevailed，andaChristianitydesignedprimarilytoevokeandtosustainthem。

Justastheintellectualcultureofthearistocracycametoclashwiththeutilitarianeducationofthebourgeoisandtoproducetheconfusingcompromisewhichatpresentprevails，sowiththedifferingethicsofthesametwoclasses。Theincursionofthewealthytradesmaninto"highlife"andofthelandedgentryintothe"city"hasvisiblybrokendowntheolderstandardsbothofmoralsandofmanners。Theprestigeofthesportingvirtueshasplayedhavocwiththesimplicityandausterityofthepuritanmoralsandcreeds，thoughitmayfairlybemaintainedthatthesanerutilitiesofthelatterhavetemperedtoaperceptibledegreethemoralsandmannersofthesportsman。Luxuriesandfrivolitiesofamorevariedorderhavelargelydisplacedtheoldersporting-life，introducingintoitsomeelementsofmoreintellectualskillandinterest，thoughitremainsprimarilydevotedtothepursuitofpleasurablesensuousfutilities。

But，thoughthemodesoftheleisurelifeareshifting，thedefinitelyparasiticattitudeandcareerwhichitembodiesremainunchanged。Thesenseofjusticeandofhumanityamongitsmembersisasdefectiveasever。Thistruthissometimesconcealedbythechangeinsocialareasthatistakingplace。Classhonourandcomradeshiphaveasomewhatwiderscopeastherangeofeffectiveintercourseexpands，andclasseswhichformerlywerewideapartcomepartiallytofusewithoneanother，orarebroughtwithintherangeofsympathy，asregardstheirmoresympatheticmembers。SointercourseuponafairlyequalbasiscantakeplaceinsuchacountryasEnglandbetweenmostpersonswhohavereachedacertainlevelofrefinementofliving。

Thiscertainlyimpliessometransfusionofmoralstandards，theunionofcommonsentimentsregardingindustryandpropertywiththedownwardspreadofamodifiedconceptionofasportinglife。Indeed，imitationhasgoneacertainwaytowardsinfectingallthestablergradesoftheworking-classeswiththisblendofbarbarianandpuritanvaluations。Whilethelargerpecuniarymeansandleisurewhichtheypossesshasintroducedintotheirstandardoflifesportinghabitslargelyimitativeofthefullyleisuredaristocracy，ithasimplantedhabitsof"respectability"asthecontributionofthebourgeoistypeimmediatelyabovetheminthesocialscale。

§；6。Butwhenwedipdownbelowthebourgeoisandtheregularworking-classeswhichhehasdrilledinindustry，wefindalowerleisureclasswhosevaluationsandwaysoflivingformamostinstructiveparodyoftheupperleisureclass。Bothincountryandtownlifethesetypesappear。Theyinclude"gypsies"，tramps，poachersandothervagabonds，whohaveneverbeenenlistedinthearmyofindustry，orhavedesertedinfavourofa"free"lifeofhazard，beggaryandplunder。Intownsnaturalproclivitiesormisfortuneaccountforconsiderablegroupsofcasualworkers，professionaloramateurthievesandprostitutes，street-sellers，corner-men，kepthusbands，andotherparasiteswhoareaburdenontheworking-classes。Alikeincountryandintown，thesemenpractise，sofarascircumstancesallow，thesamehabitsandexhibitthesamecharacterastheleisureclassatthetop。Thefighting，sporting，roving，generous，reckless，wastefultraitsarealldiscernible，thesameunaffectedcontemptfortheworker，thesameclasscamaraderie，oftenwithaspecialcodeofhonour，thesamesexlicenseandjovialityofmanners。Eventheirintelligenceandhumour，theirverymodesofspeech，arethehalf-imitative，half-originalreplicaofhighlifeasitshowsintherace-course，intheclubsmoke-room，ortheflashmusichall。Oftentheparasitesandhangers-ontoupper-classsportsandrecreations，theseformalargeandgrowingclassofourpopulation，andtheirwithdrawalfromallindustrythatcanbetermedproductive，coupledwiththedebasedmodeofconsumptionwhichtheypractise，countheavilyintheaggregateofsocialwaste。

§；7。Astheopportunitiesofleisureandofsomesurplusincomebeyondthecurrentacceptedstandardofclasscomfortbecomemoregeneral，thissympatheticimitationofrecreations，educationandmorals，undoubtedlymakesforanationalstandardisationoflife，thoughtheenormousdiscrepanciesineconomicresourcesgreatlylimittheefficacyofsuchatendencytounity。Buttheapparentgaininhumanitythussuggestedislargelycounterworkedbythestrongersenseofnationalandespeciallyofracialcleavagewhichhascomewithmodernworldintercourse。Ifclassbarriersofconduct，educationandfeelingaresomewhatweakeningintheforemostEuropeannations，aclearerandintenserrealisationofnationalandracialbarrierstakestheirplace。Everymodificationofclassexclusiveness，andofeconomicplunder，uponthesmallerscale，iscompensatedbythiswiderracialexclusiveness，withitsaccompanyingparasitism。

ThecivilisedWesternworldiscomingmoreconsciouslytomoulditspracticalpolicy，politicalandeconomic，anditssentimentsandtheories，uponawhiteexploitationofthelowerandthebackwardpeoples。Imperialismisdisplacing，oratpresentiscrossing，classsupremacy，andisevolvinganintellectualismandamoralsaccommodatedtotheneedsofthisnewsocialcleavage。ItismovingtowardsanotdistantepochinwhichWesternwhitenationsmay，asregardstheirmeansoflivelihood，bemainlydependentuponthelabourofregimentedlowerpeoplesinvariousdistantportionsoftheglobe，allormostmembersofthedominantpeoplesenjoyingalifeofcomparativepleasureandleisureandacollectivesenseofpersonalsuperiorityastherulersoftheearth。

Thatstandardsofrecreation，educationandmorals，thusformedandtransformed，arelikelytocontainenormous"wastes"intheirdirectandindirectbearinguponeconomiclife，isobvious。Howfarthiswasteistobeimputedtoimitationoftheprestige-possessinghabitsof"theleisuredclass"，howfarto"originalsin"ortheerrorsorexcessesnaturaltoallsortsandconditionsofmen，itisnotpossibletoascertain。Butitwillbeevidentthatinthesehighersatisfactions，towhichanincreasing"surplus"ofwealth，leisureandenergycanbedevoted，willbefoundthelargestwastes。Fortheconventionalexpenditureembeddedinthesestrataofthevariousclassstandardswillbelargelydirectedbymotiveswhichareverylooselyrelatedtoanyrealstandardoforganicwelfare。Oneneednotexaggeratethisexpenditureoftimeormoney，ordeemitwhollyunproductive。

Itmayevenbeconcededthatfewofthepursuitsofpleasurearewhollydestituteofbenefit，norareprestigeandtheimitationitengenderswhollyvalueless。Butsuchpracticescontainmuchthatisobsolete，incongruousorindigestible，muchthatisactivelyinjurious，bothtotheindividualandtosociety。Regardedfromthestandpointofpecuniaryexpenditure，themisdirectionofthesurplusincomeintoemptyordepravedmodesofrecreation，culture，religionandcharityisthelargestofalleconomicwastes。Coulditbesetforthinveraciousaccounts，itsenormitywouldimpressallreflectiveminds。Howsmallthetotalyieldofhumanwelfareorevenofcurrentpleasurablesatisfactionfromtheidletravel，racing，hunting，motoring，golfing，yachting，bettingandgambling，incomparisonwiththehumangainfromtheworkandartsofwhichtheyarethefutilesubstitutes!Considerthedamagetoagriculture，thesheerlossofhumanenergy，theselfishness，sensualityandbrutalityincidentaltomanysports，theempty-mindedness，obtusenessofintelligenceandinsensatepride，theshuttingofthesensesandtheemotionstomostofthefinerandnoblerscenesinthespectacleofnatureandthedramaofhumanity，thatarethenaturalandnecessaryconsequencesof"asportinglife。"

Orcouldoneaccuratelyanalysethecostsofdilettantism，shamculture，withitsmonstrousperversionsofproductiveenergyinthefieldsofpedagogy，art，science，andliterature，inadescendingscaleoffrivolousnessordepravity，astheyseizebyimitationtheawakeningmindofeverlargerstrataofourpopulations!Butevenworsethanshamintellectualismistheshammoralitywhichtricksitselfoutinpietisticformulasandcharitablepractices，soastoevadeobediencetotheplainlawsofhumanbrotherhoodandsocialjusticeinthisworld。

Thewidestanddeepestimplicationsofthisparasiticlifeofluxuryandleisure，thesubstitutionofrecreationforartandexercise，ofdilettantismforthelifeofthought，ofpietism，andcharityforhumanfellowship，liebeyondthescopeofourformalenquiry。Weareconcernedwiththemprimarilyasaffectingeconomicproductionandconsumption。Sport，dilettantismandcharityareforuscharacteristicproductsofmal-distributionseizingthatsurplus-incomewhichistheeconomicnutrimentofsocialprogress，andapplyingittoevolveacomplicatedlifeoffutilefrivolitiesforasmallleisuredclasswhodamagebytheircontagiousexampleandincitementthestandardsoftheworkingmembersofthesocietyinwhichtheyexercisedominion。CHAPTERXII:THEHUMANLAWOF

DISTRIBUTION

§；1。Inseekingatoncetoestablishandapplytoindustryastandardofhumanvalue，wehavetakenforourconcretesubject-mattertheaggregateofmarketablegoodsandservicesthatconstitutetherealincomeofthenation。Thisrealwealth，distributedinincomeamongthevariousmembersofthecommunity，wesubjectedtoadoubleanalysis，tracingitbackwardsthroughtheprocessesofitsproduction，forwardintoitsconsumption。

Someoftheactivitiesofitsproductionwerecognisedasbeinginthemselvesinteresting，pleasant，educativeorotherwiseorganicallyuseful:otherswefoundtobeuninteresting，painful，depressingorotherwiseorganicallycostly。Asimilardivergenceofhumanvalueappearedintheconsumptionofthoseformsofwealth。Somesortsandquantitiesofconsumptionwerefoundconducivetothemaintenanceandfurtheranceofhealthylife，bothpleasantandprofitable。Othersortsandqualitiesofconsumptionwerefoundwastefulorinjurioustothelifeoftheconsumersandofthecommunity。

Thegeneralresultofthisdoubleanalysismaybesummarisedinthefollowingtabularform。

WEALTH

PRODUCTION

Humanutility——Art&；Exercise；LabourHumancost——Toil；Mal-productionCONSUMPTION

Humanutility——Needs；AbundanceHumancost——Satiety；Mal-consumptionIntheordinaryeconomicaccount"costs"appearentirelyontheProductionsideoftheaccount，"utility"entirelyontheConsumptionside。Productionisregardednotasgoodordesirableinitself，butonlyasameanstowardsanend，Consumption。Ontheotherhand，allpartsofConsumptionareregardedasinthemselvesdesirableandgood，andareassessedasUtilitiesaccordingtotheworthwhichcurrentdesires，expressedinpurchasingpower，setuponthem。

Ourhumanvaluationrefusestoregardworkasameremeanstoconsumption。

Itfindslifeandwelfareinthehealthyfunctioningofproductiveactivities，aswellasintheprocessesofrepairandgrowthwhichformsoundconsumption。

IfallproductioncouldbereducedtoArtandExercise，thecreativeandthere-creativefunctions，allconsumptiontothesatisfactionofphysicalandspiritualneeds，weshouldappeartohavereachedanidealeconomy，inwhichtherewouldbenohumancostsandamaximumamountofhumanutility。

Theconditionsofacompleteindividuallifewouldseemtobeattained。

Butwearenotconcernedwithasocietyinwhichcompletenessoftheindividuallifeisthesoleend，butwithasocietyinwhichthedesires，purposesandwelfareoftheindividualsarecomprisedintheachievementofacommonlife。ForthisreasonIhaveincludedundertheheadofUtilityontheProductivesideofouraccount，notonlytheArtandExercisewhicharedirectlyconducivetoindividualwell-being，butaquantumofLabourwhichrepresentstheeconomicmeasureoftheinter-dependency，orsolidarity，oftheso-calledindividuals。Suchlabouristheso-called"sacrifice"

requiredof"individuals"intheinterestofthesocietytowhichtheybelong。Totheindividualistitappearsadistortionofthefreefulldevelopmentofhisnature，aninterferencewithhisperfectlife。Butitis，ofcourse，neithersacrificenordistortion。Fortheso-calledindividualisnowise，exceptinphysicalstructure，1completelydividedfromhisfellows。Heisasocialbeingandthissocialnaturedemandsrecognitionandexpressionineconomicprocesses。Itrequireshimtoengageinsomespecialworkwhichhasforitsdirectendthewelfareofsociety，inadditiontotheworkofusinghisownpowersforhisownpersonalends。Howfarthisroutinelabourforsocietycanbetakenintohisconceptionofhishumannature，andsobecomeasourceofpersonalsatisfaction，isaquestionweshalldiscusslateron。Atpresentitwillsufficetorecognisethateachman"sfaircontributiontotheroutinelabouroftheworld，thoughirksometohim，isnotinjuriousbutserviceabletohis"human"nature。Thusinterpreted，itstandsontheutility，notonthecost，sideoftheaccount。Itmustbedistinguishedfromitsexcess，whichwehereterm"toil"，andfromwork，whichwhetherfromanabuseofthecreativefacultyorofsocialcontrol，isbadanddegradinginitsnatureandisheretermedmal-production。

Asimilardistinctionbetweenthenarrowlypersonalandthebroadersocialinterpretationofwelfareisapplicableontheconsumptionside。

Itisclearlynotenoughthattheincomewhichistofurnishconsumptionshouldsufficeonlytomakeprovisionforthesatisfactionofthematerialandspiritualneedsoftheindividualorevenofhisfamily。Theexpenditureofeverymanshouldcontainamargin——whichIherecall"abundance"——

fromwhichhemaycontributevoluntarilytothegoodofothers。Therewillbepublicneedsoremergencies，whicharenotproperlycoveredbyStateservicesbutremainacalluponthepublicspiritofpersonsofdiscernmentandhumanity。Therearealsothecallsofhospitalityandcomradeship，andthewiderclaimofcharity，thewillinghelptothoseinneed，acharitythatisspontaneous，notorganised，thatdegradesneitherhimwhogivesnorhimwhoreceives，becauseitisthenaturalexpressionofaspiritofhumanbrotherhood。Forthestingalikeofcondescensionandofdegradationwouldberemovedfromcharity，whenbothpartiesfeelthatsuchactsofgivingareanagreeableexpressionofaspiritoffellowship。Fromtheconsumptionwhichisthusappliedtothesatisfactionofsoundpersonalneeds，orwhichoverflowsin"abundance"tomeettheneedsofothers，wedistinguishsharplythatexcessivequantityofconsumption，whichinourTableranksas"Satiety"，andthosebasemodesofconsumptionwhichintheirpoisonousreactionsonpersonalandsocialwelfarestrictlycorrespondtothebaseformsofproduction。

§；2。Sucharethegenerallinesofdemarcationbetweenthestrictlybusinessandthehumanvaluationoftheproductiveandconsumptiveprocesses。

WenowperceivehowcloseistheresemblanceofthelawsofhumanvaluationasappliedtothetwosidesoftheequationofWealth。Thissimilarityis，ofcourse，nochancecoincidence:itinheresintheorganicnatureofsocietyandofindividuallife。But，inordertoproceedwithourmainpurpose，theexpressionoftheeconomicincomeintermsofhumanincome，wemustbringthetwosidesoftheenquiryintocloserunion。Wecanthusgetafairsurveyofthecurrentlifeofindustryfromthestandpointofwealthandwaste，healthanddisease。Sofarasournationalincome，the£；2，000，000，000ofgoodsandservices，areproducedbyactivities，whichintheirnatureanddistributioncanbeclassedasArt，ExerciseandSocialLabour，andareconsumedinwaysconducivetothesatisfactionofindividualandsocialNeeds，ourindustrialsocietyissound。

Probablythegreaterpartofourincomeisthusmadeandspent。Thenecessityofattendingmorecloselytothedefectsthantothesuccessesofthepresentsystemmustnotleadustodisparagethelatter。