第11章

—— *ThefirstwasoccasionedbythedeathofGustavusAdolphus——

Inthisperplexity，alllookedtoOxenstiernforcounselandassistance；

OxenstiernappliedforbothtotheGermanStates。Troopswerewanted；

moneylikewise，toraisenewlevies，andtopaytotheoldthearrearswhichthemenwereclamorouslydemanding。OxenstiernaddressedhimselftotheElectorofSaxony；butheshamefullyabandonedtheSwedishcause，tonegociateforaseparatepeacewiththeEmperoratPirna。HesolicitedaidfromtheLowerSaxonStates；butthey，longweariedoftheSwedishpretensionsanddemandsformoney，nowthoughtonlyofthemselves；andGeorge，DukeofLunenburg，inplaceofflyingtotheassistanceofUpperGermany，laidsiegetoMinden，withtheintentionofkeepingpossessionofitforhimself。AbandonedbyhisGermanallies，thechancellorexertedhimselftoobtaintheassistanceofforeignpowers。England，Holland，andVenicewereappliedtofortroopsandmoney；and，driventothelastextremity，thechancellorreluctantlyresolvedtotakethedisagreeablestepwhichhehadsolongavoided，andtothrowhimselfundertheprotectionofFrance。

ThemomenthadatlastarrivedwhichRichelieuhadlongwaitedforwithimpatience。Nothing，hewasaware，buttheimpossibilityofsavingthemselvesbyanyothermeans，couldinducetheProtestantStatesinGermanytosupportthepretensionsofFranceuponAlsace。

Thisextremenecessityhadnowarrived；theassistanceofthatpowerwasindispensable，andshewasresolvedtobewellpaidfortheactivepartwhichshewasabouttotakeintheGermanwar。Fulloflustreanddignity，itnowcameuponthepoliticalstage。Oxenstiern，whofeltlittlereluctanceinbestowingtherightsandpossessionsoftheempire，hadalreadycededthefortressofPhilipsburg，andtheotherlongcovetedplaces。

TheProtestantsofUpperGermanynow，intheirownnames，sentaspecialembassytoRichelieu，requestinghimtotakeAlsace，thefortressofBreyssach，whichwasstilltoberecoveredfromtheenemy，andalltheplacesupontheUpperRhine，whichwerethekeysofGermany，undertheprotectionofFrance。WhatwasimpliedbyFrenchprotectionhadbeenseenintheconductofFrancetowardsthebishopricsofMetz，Toul，andVerdun，whichithadheldforcenturiesagainsttherightfulowners。

TreveswasalreadyinthepossessionofFrenchgarrisons；

Lorrainewasinamannerconquered，asitmightatanytimebeoverrunbyanarmy，andcouldnot，alone，andwithitsownstrength，withstanditsformidableneighbour。FrancenowentertainedthehopeofaddingAlsacetoitslargeandnumerouspossessions，and，——sinceatreatywassoontobeconcludedwiththeDutchforthepartitionoftheSpanishNetherlands——theprospectofmakingtheRhineitsnaturalboundarytowardsGermany。ThusshamefullyweretherightsofGermanysacrificedbytheGermanStatestothistreacherousandgraspingpower，which，underthemaskofadisinterestedfriendship，aimedonlyatitsownaggrandizement；

andwhileitboldlyclaimedthehonourabletitleofaProtectress，wassolelyoccupiedwithpromotingitsownschemes，andadvancingitsowninterestsamidthegeneralconfusion。

Inreturnfortheseimportantcessions，FranceengagedtoeffectadiversioninfavouroftheSwedes，bycommencinghostilitiesagainsttheSpaniards；

andifthisshouldleadtoanopenbreachwiththeEmperor，tomaintainanarmyupontheGermansideoftheRhine，whichwastoactinconjunctionwiththeSwedesandGermansagainstAustria。ForawarwithSpain，theSpaniardsthemselvessoonaffordedthedesiredpretext。

MakinganinroadfromtheNetherlands，uponthecityofTreves，theycutinpiecestheFrenchgarrison；and，inopenviolationofthelawofnations，madeprisonertheElector，whohadplacedhimselfundertheprotectionofFrance，andcarriedhimintoFlanders。

WhentheCardinalInfante，asViceroyoftheSpanishNetherlands，refusedsatisfactionfortheseinjuries，anddelayedtorestoretheprincetoliberty，Richelieu，aftertheoldcustom，formallyproclaimedwaratBrusselsbyaherald，andthewarwasatonceopenedbythreedifferentarmiesinMilan，intheValteline，andinFlanders。TheFrenchministerwaslessanxioustocommencehostilitieswiththeEmperor，whichpromisedfeweradvantages，andthreatenedgreaterdifficulties。Afourtharmy，however，wasdetachedacrosstheRhineintoGermany，underthecommandofCardinalLavalette，whichwastoactinconjunctionwithDukeBernard，againsttheEmperor，withoutapreviousdeclarationofwar。

AheavierblowfortheSwedes，thaneventhedefeatofNordlingen，wasthereconciliationoftheElectorofSaxonywiththeEmperor。

Aftermanyfruitlessattemptsbothtobringaboutandtopreventit，itwasatlasteffectedin1634，atPirna，and，thefollowingyear，reducedintoaformaltreatyofpeace，atPrague。TheElectorofSaxonyhadalwaysviewedwithjealousythepretensionsoftheSwedesinGermany；

andhisaversiontothisforeignpower，whichnowgavelawswithintheEmpire，hadgrownwitheveryfreshrequisitionthatOxenstiernwasobligedtomakeupontheGermanstates。ThisillfeelingwaskeptalivebytheSpanishcourt，wholabouredearnestlytoeffectapeacebetweenSaxonyandtheEmperor。

Weariedwiththecalamitiesofalonganddestructivecontest，whichhadselectedSaxonyaboveallothersforitstheatre；

grievedbythemiserieswhichbothfriendandfoeinflicteduponhissubjects，andseducedbythetemptingpropositionsoftheHouseofAustria，theElectoratlastabandonedthecommoncause，and，caringlittleforthefateofhisconfederates，orthelibertiesofGermany，thoughtonlyofsecuringhisownadvantages，evenattheexpenseofthewholebody。

Infact，themiseryofGermanyhadrisentosuchaheight，thatallclamorouslyvociferatedforpeace；andeventhemostdisadvantageouspacificationwouldhavebeenhailedasablessingfromheaven。Theplains，whichformerlyhadbeenthrongedwithahappyandindustriouspopulation，wherenaturehadlavishedherchoicestgifts，andplentyandprosperityhadreigned，werenowawildanddesolatewilderness。Thefields，abandonedbytheindustrioushusbandman，laywasteanduncultivated；

andnosoonerhadtheyoungcropsgiventhepromiseofasmilingharvest，thanasinglemarchdestroyedthelaboursofayear，andblastedthelasthopeofanafflictedpeasantry。Burntcastles，wastedfields，villagesinashes，weretobeseenextendingfarandwideonallsides，whiletheruinedpeasantryhadnoresourceleftbuttoswellthehordeofincendiaries，andfearfullytoretaliateupontheirfellows，whohadhithertobeensparedthemiserieswhichtheythemselveshadsuffered。

Theonlysafeguardagainstoppressionwastobecomeanoppressor。Thetownsgroanedunderthelicentiousnessofundisciplinedandplunderinggarrisons，whoseizedandwastedthepropertyofthecitizens，and，underthelicenseoftheirposition，committedthemostremorselessdevastationandcruelty。

Ifthemarchofanarmyconvertedwholeprovincesintodeserts，ifotherswereimpoverishedbywinterquarters，orexhaustedbycontributions，thesestillwerebutpassingevils，andtheindustryofayearmighteffacethemiseriesofafewmonths。Buttherewasnoreliefforthosewhohadagarrisonwithintheirwalls，orintheneighbourhood；eventhechangeoffortunecouldnotimprovetheirunfortunatefate，sincethevictortrodinthestepsofthevanquished，andfriendswerenotmoremercifulthanenemies。Theneglectedfarms，thedestructionofthecrops，andthenumerousarmieswhichoverrantheexhaustedcountry，wereinevitablyfollowedbyscarcityandthehighpriceofprovisions，whichinthelateryearswasstillfurtherincreasedbyageneralfailureinthecrops。Thecrowdingtogetherofmenincampsandquarters——

wantupononeside，andexcessontheother，occasionedcontagiousdistempers，whichweremorefatalthaneventhesword。Inthislongandgeneralconfusion，allthebondsofsociallifewerebrokenup；——

respectfortherightsoftheirfellowmen，thefearofthelaws，purityofmorals，honour，andreligion，werelaidaside，wheremightruledsupremewithironsceptre。Undertheshelterofanarchyandimpunity，everyviceflourished，andmenbecameaswildasthecountry。

Nostationwastoodignifiedforoutrage，nopropertytooholyforrapineandavarice。Inaword，thesoldierreignedsupreme；

andthatmostbrutalofdespotsoftenmadehisownofficerfeelhispower。

Theleaderofanarmywasafarmoreimportantpersonwithinanycountrywhereheappeared，thanitslawfulgovernor，whowasfrequentlyobligedtoflybeforehimintohisowncastlesforsafety。Germanyswarmedwiththesepettytyrants，andthecountrysufferedequallyfromitsenemiesanditsprotectors。Thesewoundsrankledthedeeper，whentheunhappyvictimsrecollectedthatGermanywassacrificedtotheambitionofforeignpowers，who，fortheirownends，prolongedthemiseriesofwar。Germanybledunderthescourge，toextendtheconquestsandinfluenceofSweden；

andthetorchofdiscordwaskeptalivewithintheEmpire，thattheservicesofRichelieumightberenderedindispensableinFrance。

But，intruth，itwasnotmerelyinterestedvoiceswhichopposedapeace；

andifbothSwedenandtheGermanstateswereanxious，fromcorruptmotives，toprolongtheconflict，theyweresecondedintheirviewsbysoundpolicy。

AfterthedefeatofNordlingen，anequitablepeacewasnottobeexpectedfromtheEmperor；and，thisbeingthecase，wasitnottoogreatasacrifice，afterseventeenyearsofwar，withallitsmiseries，toabandonthecontest，notonlywithoutadvantage，butevenwithloss？Whatwouldavailsomuchbloodshed，ifallwastoremainasithadbeen；iftheirrightsandpretensionswereneitherlargernorsafer；ifallthathadbeenwonwithsomuchdifficultywastobesurrenderedforapeaceatanycost？

Woulditnotbebettertoendure，fortwoorthreeyearsmore，theburdenstheyhadbornesolong，andtoreapatlastsomerecompensefortwentyyearsofsuffering？Neitherwasitdoubtful，thatpeacemightatlastbeobtainedonfavourableterms，ifonlytheSwedesandtheGermanProtestantsshouldcontinueunitedinthecabinetandinthefield，andpursuedtheircommoninterestswithareciprocalsympathyandzeal。Theirdivisionsalone，hadrenderedtheenemyformidable，andprotractedtheacquisitionofalastingandgeneralpeace。AndthisgreateviltheElectorofSaxonyhadbroughtupontheProtestantcausebyconcludingaseparatetreatywithAustria。

He，indeed，hadcommencedhisnegociationswiththeEmperor，evenbeforethebattleofNordlingen；andtheunfortunateissueofthatbattleonlyacceleratedtheirconclusion。Byit，allhisconfidenceintheSwedeswaslost；anditwasevendoubtedwhethertheywouldeverrecoverfromtheblow。Thejealousiesamongtheirgenerals，theinsubordinationofthearmy，andtheexhaustionoftheSwedishkingdom，shutoutanyreasonableprospectofeffectiveassistanceontheirpart。

TheElectorhastened，therefore，toprofitbytheEmperor’smagnanimity，who，evenafterthebattleofNordlingen，didnotrecalltheconditionspreviouslyoffered。WhileOxenstiern，whohadassembledtheestatesinFrankfort，madefurtherdemandsuponthemandhim，theEmperor，onthecontrary，madeconcessions；andthereforeitrequirednolongconsiderationtodecidebetweenthem。

Inthemeantime，however，hewasanxioustoescapethechargeofsacrificingthecommoncauseandattendingonlytohisowninterests。

AlltheGermanstates，andeventheSwedes，werepubliclyinvitedtobecomepartiestothispeace，althoughSaxonyandtheEmperorweretheonlypowerswhodeliberateduponit，andwhoassumedtherighttogivelawtoGermany。Bythisself-appointedtribunal，thegrievancesoftheProtestantswerediscussed，theirrightsandprivilegesdecided，andeventhefateofreligionsdetermined，withoutthepresenceofthosewhoweremostdeeplyinterestedinit。Betweenthem，ageneralpeacewasresolvedon，anditwastobeenforcedbyanimperialarmyofexecution，asaformaldecreeoftheEmpire。Whoeveropposedit，wastobetreatedasapublicenemy；andthus，contrarytotheirrights，thestatesweretobecompelledtoacknowledgealaw，inthepassingofwhichtheyhadnoshare。

Thus，eveninform，thepacificationatPraguewasanarbitrarymeasure；

norwasitlesssoinitscontents。TheEdictofRestitutionhadbeenthechiefcauseofdisputebetweentheElectorandtheEmperor；

andthereforeitwasfirstconsideredintheirdeliberations。

Withoutformallyannullingit，itwasdeterminedbythetreatyofPrague，thatalltheecclesiasticaldomainsholdingimmediatelyoftheEmpire，and，amongthemediateones，thosewhichhadbeenseizedbytheProtestantssubsequentlytothetreatyatPassau，should，forfortyyears，remaininthesamepositionastheyhadbeeninbeforetheEdictofRestitution，butwithoutanyformaldecisionofthediettothateffect。

Beforetheexpirationofthistermacommission，composedofequalnumbersofbothreligions，shouldproceedtosettlethematterpeaceablyandaccordingtolaw；andifthiscommissionshouldbeunabletocometoadecision，eachpartyshouldremaininpossessionoftherightswhichithadexercisedbeforetheEdictofRestitution。Thisarrangement，therefore，farfromremovingthegroundsofdissension，onlysuspendedthedisputeforatime；andthisarticleofthetreatyofPragueonlycoveredtheembersofafuturewar。

ThearchbishopricofMagdeburgremainedinpossessionofPrinceAugustusofSaxony，andHalberstadtinthatoftheArchdukeLeopoldWilliam。

FourestatesweretakenfromtheterritoryofMagdeburg，andgiventoSaxony，forwhichtheAdministratorofMagdeburg，ChristianWilliamofBrandenburg，wasotherwisetobeindemnified。

TheDukesofMecklenburg，uponaccedingtothistreaty，weretobeacknowledgedasrightfulpossessorsoftheirterritories，inwhichthemagnanimityofGustavusAdolphushadlongagoreinstatedthem。

Donauwerthrecovereditsliberties。TheimportantclaimsoftheheirsofthePalatine，howeverimportantitmightbefortheProtestantcausenottolosethiselectoratevoteinthediet，werepassedoverinconsequenceoftheanimositysubsistingbetweentheLutheransandtheCalvinists。Alltheconquestswhich，inthecourseofthewar，hadbeenmadebytheGermanstates，orbytheLeagueandtheEmperor，weretobemutuallyrestored；

allwhichhadbeenappropriatedbytheforeignpowersofFranceandSweden，wastobeforciblywrestedfromthembytheunitedpowers。Thetroopsofthecontractingpartiesweretobeformedintooneimperialarmy，which，supportedandpaidbytheEmpire，was，byforceofarms，tocarryintoexecutionthecovenantsofthetreaty。

AsthepeaceofPraguewasintendedtoserveasagenerallawoftheEmpire，thosepoints，whichdidnotimmediatelyaffectthelatter，formedthesubjectofaseparatetreaty。Byit，LusatiawascededtotheElectorofSaxonyasafiefofBohemia，andspecialarticlesguaranteedthefreedomofreligionofthiscountryandofSilesia。

AlltheProtestantstateswereinvitedtoaccedetothetreatyofPrague，andonthatconditionweretobenefitbytheamnesty。

TheprincesofWurtembergandBaden，whoseterritoriestheEmperorwasalreadyinpossessionof，andwhichhewasnotdisposedtorestoreunconditionally；andsuchvassalsofAustriaashadbornearmsagainsttheirsovereign；andthosestateswhich，underthedirectionofOxenstiern，composedthecounciloftheUpperGermanCircle，wereexcludedfromthetreaty，——notsomuchwiththeviewofcontinuingthewaragainstthem，asofcompellingthemtopurchasepeaceatadearerrate。Theirterritoriesweretoberetainedinpledge，tilleverythingshouldberestoredtoitsformerfooting。

SuchwasthetreatyofPrague。Equaljustice，however，towardsall，mightperhapshaverestoredconfidencebetweentheheadoftheEmpireanditsmembers——betweentheProtestantsandtheRomanCatholics——

betweentheReformedandtheLutheranparty；andtheSwedes，abandonedbyalltheirallies，wouldinallprobabilityhavebeendrivenfromGermanywithdisgrace。Butthisinequalitystrengthened，inthosewhoweremoreseverelytreated，thespiritofmistrustandopposition，andmadeitaneasiertaskfortheSwedestokeepalivetheflameofwar，andtomaintainapartyinGermany。

ThepeaceofPrague，asmighthavebeenexpected，wasreceivedwithveryvariousfeelingsthroughoutGermany。Theattempttoconciliatebothparties，hadrendereditobnoxioustoboth。

TheProtestantscomplainedoftherestraintsimposeduponthem；

theRomanCatholicsthoughtthatthesehatedsectarieshadbeenfavouredattheexpenseofthetruechurch。Intheopinionofthelatter，thechurchhadbeendeprivedofitsinalienablerights，bytheconcessiontotheProtestantsoffortyyears’undisturbedpossessionoftheecclesiasticalbenefices；whiletheformermurmuredthattheinterestsoftheProtestantchurchhadbeenbetrayed，becausetolerationhadnotbeengrantedtotheirco-religionistsintheAustriandominions。

ButnoonewassobitterlyreproachedastheElectorofSaxony，whowaspubliclydenouncedasadeserter，atraitortoreligionandthelibertiesoftheEmpire，andaconfederateoftheEmperor。

Inthemeantime，heconsoledhimselfwiththetriumphofseeingmostoftheProtestantstatescompelledbynecessitytoembracethispeace。

TheElectorofBrandenburg，DukeWilliamofWeimar，theprincesofAnhalt，thedukesofMecklenburg，thedukesofBrunswickLunenburg，theHansetowns，andmostoftheimperialcities，accededtoit。

TheLandgraveWilliamofHesselongwavered，oraffectedtodoso，inordertogaintime，andtoregulatehismeasuresbythecourseofevents。

HehadconqueredseveralfertileprovincesofWestphalia，andderivedfromthemprincipallythemeansofcontinuingthewar；

these，bythetermsofthetreaty，hewasboundtorestore。

Bernard，DukeofWeimar，whosestates，asyet，existedonlyonpaper，asabelligerentpowerwasnotaffectedbythetreaty，butasageneralwassomaterially；and，ineitherview，hemustequallybedisposedtorejectit。Hiswholerichesconsistedinhisbravery，hispossessionsinhissword。Waralonegavehimgreatnessandimportance，andwaralonecouldrealizetheprojectswhichhisambitionsuggested。

ButofallwhodeclaimedagainstthetreatyofPrague，noneweresoloudintheirclamoursastheSwedes，andnonehadsomuchreasonfortheiropposition。InvitedtoGermanybytheGermansthemselves，thechampionsoftheProtestantChurch，andthefreedomoftheStates，whichtheyhaddefendedwithsomuchbloodshed，andwiththesacredlifeoftheirking，theynowsawthemselvessuddenlyandshamefullyabandoned，disappointedinalltheirhopes，withoutrewardandwithoutgratitudedrivenfromtheempireforwhichtheyhadtoiledandbled，andexposedtotheridiculeoftheenemybytheveryprinceswhoowedeverythingtothem。Nosatisfaction，noindemnificationfortheexpenseswhichtheyhadincurred，noequivalentfortheconquestswhichtheyweretoleavebehindthem，wasprovidedbythetreatyofPrague。

Theyweretobedismissedpoorerthantheycame，or，iftheyresisted，tobeexpelledbytheverypowerswhohadinvitedthem。TheElectorofSaxonyatlastspokeofapecuniaryindemnification，andmentionedthesmallsumoftwomillionsfivehundredthousandflorins；buttheSwedeshadalreadyexpendedconsiderablymore，andthisdisgracefulequivalentinmoneywasbothcontrarytotheirtrueinterests，andinjurioustotheirpride。

"TheElectorsofBavariaandSaxony，"repliedOxenstiern，"havebeenpaidfortheirservices，which，asvassals，theywereboundtorendertheEmperor，withthepossessionofimportantprovinces；andshallwe，whohavesacrificedourkingforGermany，bedismissedwiththemiserablesumof2，500，000florins？"Thedisappointmentoftheirexpectationswasthemoresevere，becausetheSwedeshadcalculateduponbeingrecompensedwiththeDuchyofPomerania，thepresentpossessorofwhichwasoldandwithoutheirs。ButthesuccessionofthisterritorywasconfirmedbythetreatyofPraguetotheElectorofBrandenburg；

andalltheneighbouringpowersdeclaredagainstallowingtheSwedestoobtainafootingwithintheempire。

Never，inthewholecourseofthewar，hadtheprospectsoftheSwedeslookedmoregloomy，thanintheyear1635，immediatelyaftertheconclusionofthetreatyofPrague。Manyoftheirallies，particularlyamongthefreecities，abandonedthemtobenefitbythepeace；otherswerecompelledtoaccedetoitbythevictoriousarmsoftheEmperor。Augsburg，subduedbyfamine，surrenderedundertheseverestconditions；

WurtzburgandCoburgwerelosttotheAustrians。TheLeagueofHeilbronnwasformallydissolved。NearlythewholeofUpperGermany，thechiefseatoftheSwedishpower，wasreducedundertheEmperor。Saxony，onthestrengthofthetreatyofPrague，demandedtheevacuationofThuringia，Halberstadt，andMagdeburg。Philipsburg，themilitarydepotofFrance，wassurprisedbytheAustrians，withallthestoresitcontained；

andthisseverelosscheckedtheactivityofFrance。TocompletetheembarrassmentsofSweden，thetrucewithPolandwasdrawingtoaclose。

TosupportawaratthesametimewithPolandandinGermany，wasfarbeyondthepowerofSweden；andallthatremainedwastochoosebetweenthem。

PrideandambitiondeclaredinfavourofcontinuingtheGermanwar，atwhateversacrificeonthesideofPoland。Anarmy，however，wasnecessarytocommandtherespectofPoland，andtogiveweighttoSwedeninanynegotiationsforatruceorapeace。

ThemindofOxenstiern，firm，andinexhaustibleinexpedients，setitselfmanfullytomeetthesecalamities，whichallcombinedtooverwhelmSweden；

andhisshrewdunderstandingtaughthimhowtoturnevenmisfortunestohisadvantage。ThedefectionofsomanyGermancitiesoftheempiredeprivedhim，itistrue，ofagreatpartofhisformerallies，butatthesametimeitfreedhimfromthenecessityofpayinganyregardtotheirinterests。Themorethenumberofhisenemiesincreased，themoreprovincesandmagazineswereopenedtohistroops。

ThegrossingratitudeoftheStates，andthehaughtycontemptwithwhichtheEmperorbehaved，(whodidnotevencondescendtotreatdirectlywithhimaboutapeace，)excitedinhimthecourageofdespair，andanobledeterminationtomaintainthestruggletothelast。Thecontinuanceofwar，howeverunfortunateitmightprove，couldnotrenderthesituationofSwedenworsethanitnowwas；

andifGermanywastobeevacuated，itwasatleastbetterandnoblertodososwordinhand，andtoyieldtoforceratherthantofear。

IntheextremityinwhichtheSwedeswerenowplacedbythedesertionoftheirallies，theyaddressedthemselvestoFrance，whometthemwiththegreatestencouragement。Theinterestsofthetwocrownswerecloselyunited，andFrancewouldhaveinjuredherselfbyallowingtheSwedishpowerinGermanytodecline。ThehelplesssituationoftheSwedes，wasratheranadditionalmotivewithFrancetocementmorecloselytheiralliance，andtotakeamoreactivepartintheGermanwar。SincethealliancewithSweden，atBeerwald，in1632，FrancehadmaintainedthewaragainsttheEmperor，bythearmsofGustavusAdolphus，withoutanyopenorformalbreach，byfurnishingsubsidiesandincreasingthenumberofhisenemies。

ButalarmedattheunexpectedrapidityandsuccessoftheSwedisharms，France，inanxietytorestorethebalanceofpower，whichwasdisturbedbythepreponderanceoftheSwedes，seemed，foratime，tohavelostsightofheroriginaldesigns。SheendeavouredtoprotecttheRomanCatholicprincesoftheempireagainsttheSwedishconqueror，bythetreatiesofneutrality，andwhenthisplanfailed，sheevenmeditatedherselftodeclarewaragainsthim。ButnosoonerhadthedeathofGustavusAdolphus，andthedesperatesituationoftheSwedishaffairs，dispelledthisapprehension，thanshereturnedwithfreshzealtoherfirstdesign，andreadilyaffordedinthismisfortunetheaidwhichinthehourofsuccessshehadrefused。FreedfromthecheckswhichtheambitionandvigilanceofGustavusAdolphusplaceduponherplansofaggrandizement，FranceavailedherselfofthefavourableopportunityaffordedbythedefeatofNordlingen，toobtaintheentiredirectionofthewar，andtoprescribelawstothosewhosuedforherpowerfulprotection。

Themomentseemedtosmileuponherboldestplans，andthosewhichhadformerlyseemedchimerical，nowappearedtobejustifiedbycircumstances。

ShenowturnedherwholeattentiontothewarinGermany；and，assoonasshehadsecuredherownprivateendsbyatreatywiththeGermans，shesuddenlyenteredthepoliticalarenaasanactiveandacommandingpower。

Whiletheotherbelligerentstateshadbeenexhaustingthemselvesinatediouscontest，Francehadbeenreservingherstrength，andmaintainedthecontestbymoneyalone；butnow，whenthestateofthingscalledformoreactivemeasures，sheseizedthesword，andastonishedEuropebytheboldnessandmagnitudeofherundertakings。Atthesamemoment，shefittedouttwofleets，andsentsixdifferentarmiesintothefield，whileshesubsidizedaforeigncrownandseveraloftheGermanprinces。

Animatedbythispowerfulco-operation，theSwedesandGermansawokefromtheconsternation，andhoped，swordinhand，toobtainamorehonourablepeacethanthatofPrague。Abandonedbytheirconfederates，whohadbeenreconciledtotheEmperor，theyformedastillcloseralliancewithFrance，whichincreasedhersupportwiththeirgrowingnecessities，atthesametimetakingamoreactive，althoughsecretshareintheGermanwar，untilatlast，shethrewoffthemaskaltogether，andinherownnamemadeanunequivocaldeclarationofwaragainsttheEmperor。

ToleaveSwedenatfulllibertytoactagainstAustria，FrancecommencedheroperationsbyliberatingitfromallfearofaPolishwar。

BymeansoftheCountd’Avaux，itsminister，anagreementwasconcludedbetweenthetwopowersatStummsdorfinPrussia，bywhichthetrucewasprolongedfortwenty-sixyears，thoughnotwithoutagreatsacrificeonthepartoftheSwedes，whocededbyasinglestrokeofthepenalmostthewholeofPolishPrussia，thedear-boughtconquestofGustavusAdolphus。ThetreatyofBeerwaldwas，withcertainmodifications，whichcircumstancesrenderednecessary，renewedatdifferenttimesatCompiegne，andafterwardsatWismarandHamburg。FrancehadalreadycometoarupturewithSpain，inMay，1635，andthevigorousattackwhichitmadeuponthatpower，deprivedtheEmperorofhismostvaluableauxiliariesfromtheNetherlands。BysupportingtheLandgraveWilliamofCassel，andDukeBernardofWeimar，theSwedeswereenabledtoactwithmorevigourupontheElbeandtheDanube，andadiversionupontheRhinecompelledtheEmperortodividehisforce。

Thewarwasnowprosecutedwithincreasingactivity。BythetreatyofPrague，theEmperorhadlessenedthenumberofhisadversarieswithintheEmpire；

though，atthesametime，thezealandactivityofhisforeignenemieshadbeenaugmentedbyit。InGermany，hisinfluencewasalmostunlimited，for，withtheexceptionofafewstates，hehadrenderedhimselfabsolutemasteroftheGermanbodyanditsresources，andwasagainenabledtoactinthecharacterofemperorandsovereign。

Thefirstfruitofhispowerwastheelevationofhisson，FerdinandIII。，tothedignityofKingoftheRomans，towhichhewaselectedbyadecidedmajorityofvotes，notwithstandingtheoppositionofTreves，andoftheheirsoftheElectorPalatine。But，ontheotherhand，hehadexasperatedtheSwedestodesperation，hadarmedthepowerofFranceagainsthim，anddrawnitstroopsintotheheartofthekingdom。

FranceandSweden，withtheirGermanallies，formed，fromthismoment，onefirmandcompactlyunitedpower；theEmperor，withtheGermanstateswhichadheredtohim，wereequallyfirmandunited。TheSwedes，whonolongerfoughtforGermany，butfortheirownlives，showednomoreindulgence；relievedfromthenecessityofconsultingtheirGermanallies，oraccountingtothemfortheplanswhichtheyadopted，theyactedwithmoreprecipitation，rapidity，andboldness。

Battles，thoughlessdecisive，becamemoreobstinateandbloody；

greaterachievements，bothinbraveryandmilitaryskill，wereperformed；

buttheywerebutinsulatedefforts；andbeingneitherdictatedbyanyconsistentplan，norimprovedbyanycommandingspirit，hadcomparativelylittleinfluenceuponthecourseofthewar。

Saxonyhadboundherself，bythetreatyofPrague，toexpeltheSwedesfromGermany。Fromthismoment，thebannersoftheSaxonsandImperialistswereunited:theformerconfederateswereconvertedintoimplacableenemies。

ThearchbishopricofMagdeburgwhich，bythetreaty，wascededtotheprinceofSaxony，wasstillheldbytheSwedes，andeveryattempttoacquireitbynegociationhadprovedineffectual。Hostilitiescommenced，bytheElectorofSaxonyrecallingallhissubjectsfromthearmyofBanner，whichwasencampedupontheElbe。Theofficers，longirritatedbytheaccumulationoftheirarrears，obeyedthesummons，andevacuatedonequarterafteranother。AstheSaxons，atthesametime，madeamovementtowardsMecklenburg，totakeDoemitz，andtodrivetheSwedesfromPomeraniaandtheBaltic，Bannersuddenlymarchedthither，relievedDoemitz，andtotallydefeatedtheSaxonGeneralBaudissin，with7000men，ofwhom1000wereslain，andaboutthesamenumbertakenprisoners。

Reinforcedbythetroopsandartillery，whichhadhithertobeenemployedinPolishPrussia，butwhichthetreatyofStummsdorfrenderedunnecessary，thisbraveandimpetuousgeneralmade，thefollowingyear(1636)，asuddeninroadintotheElectorateofSaxony，wherehegratifiedhisinveteratehatredoftheSaxonsbythemostdestructiveravages。Irritatedbythememoryofoldgrievanceswhich，duringtheircommoncampaigns，heandtheSwedeshadsufferedfromthehaughtinessoftheSaxons，andnowexasperatedtotheutmostbythelatedefectionoftheElector，theywreakedupontheunfortunateinhabitantsalltheirrancour。

AgainstAustriaandBavaria，theSwedishsoldierhadfoughtfromasense，asitwere，ofduty；butagainsttheSaxons，theycontendedwithalltheenergyofprivateanimosityandpersonalrevenge，detestingthemasdesertersandtraitors；forthehatredofformerfriendsisofallthemostfierceandirreconcileable。ThepowerfuldiversionmadebytheDukeofWeimar，andtheLandgraveofHesse，upontheRhineandinWestphalia，preventedtheEmperorfromaffordingthenecessaryassistancetoSaxony，andleftthewholeElectorateexposedtothedestructiveravagesofBanner’sarmy。

Atlength，theElector，havingformedajunctionwiththeImperialGeneralHatzfeld，advancedagainstMagdeburg，whichBannerinvainhastenedtorelieve。TheunitedarmyoftheImperialistsandtheSaxonsnowspreaditselfoverBrandenburg，wrestedseveralplacesfromtheSwedes，andalmostdrovethemtotheBaltic。

But，contrarytoallexpectation，Banner，whohadbeengivenupaslost，attackedtheallies，onthe24thofSeptember，1636，atWittstock，whereabloodybattletookplace。Theonsetwasterrific；

andthewholeforceoftheenemywasdirectedagainsttherightwingoftheSwedes，whichwasledbyBannerinperson。Thecontestwaslongmaintainedwithequalanimosityandobstinacyonbothsides。

TherewasnotasquadronamongtheSwedes，whichdidnotreturntentimestothecharge，tobeasoftenrepulsed；whenatlast，Bannerwasobligedtoretirebeforethesuperiornumbersoftheenemy。Hisleftwingsustainedthecombatuntilnight，andthesecondlineoftheSwedes，whichhadnotasyetbeenengaged，waspreparedtorenewitthenextmorning。

ButtheElectordidnotwaitforasecondattack。Hisarmywasexhaustedbytheeffortsoftheprecedingday；and，asthedrivershadfledwiththehorses，hisartillerywasunserviceable。Heaccordinglyretreatedinthenight，withCountHatzfeld，andrelinquishedthegroundtotheSwedes。

About5000ofthealliesfelluponthefield，exclusiveofthosewhowerekilledinthepursuit，orwhofellintothehandsoftheexasperatedpeasantry。Onehundredandfiftystandardsandcolours，twenty-threepiecesofcannon，thewholebaggageandsilverplateoftheElector，werecaptured，andmorethan2000mentakenprisoners。

Thisbrilliantvictory，achievedoveranenemyfarsuperiorinnumbers，andinaveryadvantageousposition，restoredtheSwedesatoncetotheirformerreputation；theirenemieswerediscouraged，andtheirfriendsinspiredwithnewhopes。Bannerinstantlyfollowedupthisdecisivesuccess，andhastilycrossingtheElbe，drovetheImperialistsbeforehim，throughThuringiaandHesse，intoWestphalia。Hethenreturned，andtookuphiswinterquartersinSaxony。

But，withoutthematerialaidfurnishedbythediversionupontheRhine，andtheactivitythereofDukeBernardandtheFrench，theseimportantsuccesseswouldhavebeenunattainable。DukeBernard，afterthedefeatofNordlingen，reorganizedhisbrokenarmyatWetterau；

but，abandonedbytheconfederatesoftheLeagueofHeilbronn，whichhadbeendissolvedbythepeaceofPrague，andreceivinglittlesupportfromtheSwedes，hefoundhimselfunabletomaintainanarmy，ortoperformanyenterpriseofimportance。ThedefeatatNordlingenhadterminatedallhishopesontheDuchyofFranconia，whiletheweaknessoftheSwedes，destroyedthechanceofretrievinghisfortunesthroughtheirassistance。

Tired，too，oftheconstraintimposeduponhimbytheimperiouschancellor，heturnedhisattentiontoFrance，whocouldeasilysupplyhimwithmoney，theonlyaidwhichherequired，andFrancereadilyaccededtohisproposals。

RichelieudesirednothingsomuchastodiminishtheinfluenceoftheSwedesintheGermanwar，andtoobtainthedirectionofitforhimself。Tosecurethisend，nothingappearedmoreeffectualthantodetachfromtheSwedestheirbravestgeneral，towinhimtotheinterestsofFrance，andtosecurefortheexecutionofitsprojectstheservicesofhisarm。

FromaprincelikeBernard，whocouldnotmaintainhimselfwithoutforeignsupport，Francehadnothingtofear，sincenosuccess，howeverbrilliant，couldrenderhimindependentofthatcrown。

BernardhimselfcameintoFrance，andinOctober，1635，concludedatreatyatSt。GermaineenLaye，notasaSwedishgeneral，butinhisownname，bywhichitwasstipulatedthatheshouldreceiveforhimselfayearlypensionofonemillionfivehundredthousandlivres，andfourmillionsforthesupportofhisarmy，whichhewastocommandundertheordersoftheFrenchking。Toinflamehiszeal，andtoacceleratetheconquestofAlsace，Francedidnothesitate，byasecretarticle，topromisehimthatprovinceforhisservices；apromisewhichRichelieuhadlittleintentionofperforming，andwhichthedukealsoestimatedatitsrealworth。ButBernardconfidedinhisgoodfortune，andinhisarms，andmetartificewithdissimulation。IfhecouldoncesucceedinwrestingAlsacefromtheenemy，hedidnotdespairofbeingable，incaseofneed，tomaintainitalsoagainstafriend。HenowraisedanarmyattheexpenseofFrance，whichhecommandednominallyundertheordersofthatpower，butinrealitywithoutanylimitationwhatever，andwithouthavingwhollyabandonedhisengagementswithSweden。

HebeganhisoperationsupontheRhine，whereanotherFrencharmy，underCardinalLavalette，hadalready，in1635，commencedhostilitiesagainsttheEmperor。

Againstthisforce，themainbodyoftheImperialists，afterthegreatvictoryofNordlingen，andthereductionofSwabiaandFranconiahadadvancedunderthecommandofGallas，haddriventhemasfarasMetz，clearedtheRhine，andtookfromtheSwedesthetownsofMetzandFrankenthal，ofwhichtheywereinpossession。ButfrustratedbythevigorousresistanceoftheFrench，inhismainobject，oftakinguphiswinterquartersinFrance，heledbackhisexhaustedtroopsintoAlsaceandSwabia。

Attheopeningofthenextcampaign，hepassedtheRhineatBreysach，andpreparedtocarrythewarintotheinteriorofFrance。

HeactuallyenteredBurgundy，whiletheSpaniardsfromtheNetherlandsmadeprogressinPicardy；andJohnDeWerth，aformidablegeneraloftheLeague，andacelebratedpartisan，pushedhismarchintoChampagne，andspreadconsternationeventothegatesofParis。

ButaninsignificantfortressinFrancheComtecompletelycheckedtheImperialists，andtheywereobliged，asecondtime，toabandontheirenterprise。

TheactivityofDukeBernardhadhithertobeenimpededbyhisdependenceonaFrenchgeneral，moresuitedtothepriestlyrobe，thantothebatonofcommand；andalthough，inconjunctionwithhim，heconqueredAlsaceSaverne，hefoundhimselfunable，intheyears1636and1637，tomaintainhispositionupontheRhine。TheillsuccessoftheFrencharmsintheNetherlandshadcheatedtheactivityofoperationsinAlsaceandBreisgau；butin1638，thewarinthatquartertookamorebrilliantturn。Relievedfromhisformerrestraint，andwithunlimitedcommandofhistroops，DukeBernard，inthebeginningofFebruary，lefthiswinterquartersinthebishopricofBasle，andunexpectedlyappearedupontheRhine，where，atthisrudeseasonoftheyear，anattackwaslittleanticipated。

TheforesttownsofLaufenburg，Waldshut，andSeckingen，weresurprised，andRhinefeldtbesieged。TheDukeofSavelli，theImperialgeneralwhocommandedinthatquarter，hastenedbyforcedmarchestothereliefofthisimportantplace，succeededinraisingthesiege，andcompelledtheDukeofWeimar，withgreatlosstoretire。

But，contrarytoallhumanexpectation，heappearedonthethirddayafter，(21stFebruary，1638，)beforetheImperialists，inorderofbattle，anddefeatedtheminabloodyengagement，inwhichthefourImperialgenerals，Savelli，JohnDeWerth，Enkeford，andSperreuter，with2000men，weretakenprisoners。Twoofthese，DeWerthandEnkeford，wereafterwardssentbyRichelieu’sordersintoFrance，inordertoflatterthevanityoftheFrenchbythesightofsuchdistinguishedprisoners，andbythepompofmilitarytrophies，towithdrawtheattentionofthepopulacefromthepublicdistress。

Thecapturedstandardsandcolourswere，withthesameview，carriedinsolemnprocessiontothechurchofNotreDame，thriceexhibitedbeforethealtar，andcommittedtosacredcustody。

ThetakingofRhinefeldt，Roeteln，andFribourg，wastheimmediateconsequenceoftheduke’svictory。Hisarmynowincreasedbyconsiderablerecruits，andhisprojectsexpandedinproportionasfortunefavouredhim。

ThefortressofBreysachupontheRhinewaslookeduponasholdingthecommandofthatriver，andasthekeyofAlsace。NoplaceinthisquarterwasofmoreimportancetotheEmperor，anduponnonehadmorecarebeenbestowed。

ToprotectBreysach，wastheprincipaldestinationoftheItalianarmy，undertheDukeofFeria；thestrengthofitsworks，anditsnaturaldefences，badedefiancetoassault，whiletheImperialgeneralswhocommandedinthatquarterhadorderstoretainitatanycost。Buttheduke，trustingtohisgoodfortune，resolvedtoattemptthesiege。

Itsstrengthrendereditimpregnable；itcould，therefore，onlybestarvedintoasurrender；andthiswasfacilitatedbythecarelessnessofthecommandant，who，expectingnoattack，hadbeensellingoffhisstores。

Asunderthesecircumstancesthetowncouldnotlongholdout，itmustbeimmediatelyrelievedorvictualled。Accordingly，theImperialGeneralGoetzrapidlyadvancedattheheadof12，000men，accompaniedby3000waggonsloadedwithprovisions，whichheintendedtothrowintotheplace。ButhewasattackedwithsuchvigourbyDukeBernardatWitteweyer，thathelosthiswholeforce，except3000men，togetherwiththeentiretransport。AsimilarfateatOchsenfeld，nearThann，overtooktheDukeofLorraine，who，with5000or6000men，advancedtorelievethefortress。AfterathirdattemptofgeneralGoetzforthereliefofBreysachhadprovedineffectual，thefortress，reducedtothegreatestextremitybyfamine，surrendered，afterablockadeoffourmonths，onthe17thDecember1638，toitsequallyperseveringandhumaneconqueror。

ThecaptureofBreysachopenedaboundlessfieldtotheambitionoftheDukeofWeimar，andtheromanceofhishopeswasfastapproachingtoreality。FarfromintendingtosurrenderhisconqueststoFrance，hedestinedBreysachforhimself，andrevealedthisintention，byexactingallegiancefromthevanquished，inhisownname，andnotinthatofanyotherpower。Intoxicatedbyhispastsuccess，andexcitedbytheboldesthopes，hebelievedthatheshouldbeabletomaintainhisconquests，evenagainstFranceherself。

Atatimewheneverythingdependeduponbravery，whenevenpersonalstrengthwasofimportance，whentroopsandgeneralswereofmorevaluethanterritories，itwasnaturalforaherolikeBernardtoplaceconfidenceinhisownpowers，and，attheheadofanexcellentarmy，whounderhiscommandhadprovedinvincible，tobelievehimselfcapableofaccomplishingtheboldestandlargestdesigns。Inordertosecurehimselfonefriendamongthecrowdofenemieswhomhewasabouttoprovoke，heturnedhiseyesupontheLandgravineAmeliaofHesse，thewidowofthelatelydeceasedLandgraveWilliam，aprincesswhosetalentswereequaltohercourage，andwho，alongwithherhand，wouldbestowvaluableconquests，anextensiveprincipality，andawelldisciplinedarmy。

BytheunionoftheconquestsofHesse，withhisownupontheRhine，andthejunctionoftheirforces，apowerofsomeimportance，andperhapsathirdparty，mightbeformedinGermany，whichmightdecidethefateofthewar。Butaprematuredeathputaperiodtotheseextensiveschemes。

"Courage，FatherJoseph，Breysachisours！"whisperedRichelieuintheearoftheCapuchin，whohadlongheldhimselfinreadinesstobedespatchedintothatquarter；sodelightedwashewiththisjoyfulintelligence。AlreadyinimaginationheheldAlsace，Breisgau，andallthefrontiersofAustriainthatquarter，withoutregardtohispromisetoDukeBernard。Butthefirmdeterminationwhichthelatterhadunequivocallyshown，tokeepBreysachforhimself，greatlyembarrassedthecardinal，andnoeffortsweresparedtoretainthevictoriousBernardintheinterestsofFrance。

Hewasinvitedtocourt，towitnessthehonoursbywhichhistriumphwastobecommemorated；butheperceivedandshunnedtheseductivesnare。

Thecardinalevenwentsofarastoofferhimthehandofhisnieceinmarriage；buttheproudGermanprincedeclinedtheoffer，andrefusedtosullythebloodofSaxonybyamisalliance。

Hewasnowconsideredasadangerousenemy，andtreatedassuch。

Hissubsidieswerewithdrawn；andtheGovernorofBreysachandhisprincipalofficerswerebribed，atleastupontheeventoftheduke’sdeath，totakepossessionofhisconquests，andtosecurehistroops。Theseintrigueswerenosecrettotheduke，andtheprecautionshetookintheconqueredplaces，clearlybespokethedistrustofFrance。ButthismisunderstandingwiththeFrenchcourthadthemostprejudicialinfluenceuponhisfutureoperations。

Thepreparationshewasobligedtomake，inordertosecurehisconquestsagainstanattackonthesideofFrance，compelledhimtodividehismilitarystrength，whilethestoppageofhissubsidiesdelayedhisappearanceinthefield。IthadbeenhisintentiontocrosstheRhine，tosupporttheSwedes，andtoactagainsttheEmperorandBavariaonthebanksoftheDanube。HehadalreadycommunicatedhisplanofoperationstoBanner，whowasabouttocarrythewarintotheAustrianterritories，andhadpromisedtorelievehimso，whenasuddendeathcutshorthisheroiccareer，inthe36thyearofhisage，atNeuburghupontheRhine(inJuly，1639)。

Hediedofapestilentialdisorder，which，inthecourseoftwodays，hadcarriedoffnearly400meninhiscamp。Theblackspotswhichappeareduponhisbody，hisowndyingexpressions，andtheadvantageswhichFrancewaslikelytoreapfromhissuddendecease，gaverisetoasuspicionthathehadbeenremovedbypoison——asuspicionsufficientlyrefutedbythesymptomsofhisdisorder。Inhim，theallieslosttheirgreatestgeneralafterGustavusAdolphus，FranceaformidablecompetitorforAlsace，andtheEmperorhismostdangerousenemy。TrainedtothedutiesofasoldierandageneralintheschoolofGustavusAdolphus，hesuccessfullyimitatedhiseminentmodel，andwantedonlyalongerlifetoequal，ifnottosurpassit。Withthebraveryofthesoldier，heunitedthecalmandcoolpenetrationofthegeneralandtheperseveringfortitudeoftheman，withthedaringresolutionofyouth；

withthewildardourofthewarrior，thesoberdignityoftheprince，themoderationofthesage，andtheconscientiousnessofthemanofhonour。

Discouragedbynomisfortune，hequicklyroseagaininfullvigourfromtheseverestdefeats；noobstaclescouldcheckhisenterprise，nodisappointmentsconquerhisindomitableperseverance。Hisgenius，perhaps，soaredafterunattainableobjects；buttheprudenceofsuchmen，istobemeasuredbyadifferentstandardfromthatofordinarypeople。

Capableofaccomplishingmore，hemightventuretoformmoredaringplans。

Bernardaffords，inmodernhistory，asplendidexampleofthosedaysofchivalry，whenpersonalgreatnesshaditsfullweightandinfluence，whenindividualbraverycouldconquerprovinces，andtheheroicexploitsofaGermanknightraisedhimeventotheImperialthrone。

Thebestpartoftheduke’spossessionswerehisarmy，which，togetherwithAlsace，hebequeathedtohisbrotherWilliam。Buttothisarmy，bothFranceandSwedenthoughtthattheyhadwell-groundedclaims；thelatter，becauseithadbeenraisedinnameofthatcrown，andhaddonehomagetoit；

theformer，becauseithadbeensupportedbyitssubsidies。

TheElectoralPrinceofthePalatinatealsonegociatedforitsservices，andattempted，firstbyhisagents，andlatterlyinhisownperson，towinitovertohisinterests，withtheviewofemployingitinthereconquestofhisterritories。EventheEmperorendeavouredtosecureit，acircumstancethelesssurprising，whenwereflectthatatthistimethejusticeofthecausewascomparativelyunimportant，andtheextentoftherecompensethemainobjecttowhichthesoldierlooked；

andwhenbravery，likeeveryothercommodity，wasdisposedoftothehighestbidder。ButFrance，richerandmoredetermined，outbadeallcompetitors:itboughtoverGeneralErlach，thecommanderofBreysach，andtheotherofficers，whosoonplacedthatfortress，withthewholearmy，intheirhands。

TheyoungPalatine，PrinceCharlesLouis，whohadalreadymadeanunsuccessfulcampaignagainsttheEmperor，sawhishopesagaindeceived。

AlthoughintendingtodoFrancesoillaservice，astocompetewithherforBernard’sarmy，hehadtheimprudencetotravelthroughthatkingdom。

Thecardinal，whodreadedthejusticeofthePalatine’scause，wasgladtoseizeanyopportunitytofrustratehisviews。HeaccordinglycausedhimtobeseizedatMoulin，inviolationofthelawofnations，anddidnotsethimatliberty，untilhelearnedthatthearmyoftheDukeofWeimarhadbeensecured。FrancewasnowinpossessionofanumerousandwelldisciplinedarmyinGermany，andfromthismomentbegantomakeopenwarupontheEmperor。

ButitwasnolongeragainstFerdinandII。thatitshostilitiesweretobeconducted；forthatprincehaddiedinFebruary，1637，inthe59thyearofhisage。Thewarwhichhisambitionhadkindled，however，survivedhim。Duringareignofeighteenyearshehadneveroncelaidasidethesword，nortastedtheblessingsofpeaceaslongashishandswayedtheimperialsceptre。Endowedwiththequalitiesofagoodsovereign，adornedwithmanyofthosevirtueswhichensurethehappinessofapeople，andbynaturegentleandhumane，weseehim，fromerroneousideasofthemonarch’sduty，becomeatoncetheinstrumentandthevictimoftheevilpassionsofothers；

hisbenevolentintentionsfrustrated，andthefriendofjusticeconvertedintotheoppressorofmankind，theenemyofpeace，andthescourgeofhispeople。Amiableindomesticlife，andrespectableasasovereign，butinhispolicyilladvised，whilehegainedtheloveofhisRomanCatholicsubjects，heincurredtheexecrationoftheProtestants。HistoryexhibitsmanyandgreaterdespotsthanFerdinandII。，yethealonehashadtheunfortunatecelebrityofkindlingathirtyyears’war；buttoproduceitslamentableconsequences，hisambitionmusthavebeensecondedbyakindredspiritoftheage，acongenialstateofpreviouscircumstances，andexistingseedsofdiscord。

Atalessturbulentperiod，thesparkwouldhavefoundnofuel；andthepeacefulnessoftheagewouldhavechokedthevoiceofindividualambition；

butnowtheflashfelluponapileofaccumulatedcombustibles，andEuropewasinflames。

Hisson，FerdinandIII。，who，afewmonthsbeforehisfather’sdeath，hadbeenraisedtothedignityofKingoftheRomans，inheritedhisthrone，hisprinciples，andthewarwhichhehadcaused。ButFerdinandIII。

hadbeenacloserwitnessofthesufferingsofthepeople，andthedevastationofthecountry，andfeltmorekeenlyandardentlythenecessityofpeace。LessinfluencedbytheJesuitsandtheSpaniards，andmoremoderatetowardsthereligiousviewsofothers，hewasmorelikelythanhisfathertolistentothevoiceofreason。

Hedidso，andultimatelyrestoredtoEuropetheblessingofpeace，butnottillafteracontestofelevenyearswagedwithswordandpen；

nottillafterhehadexperiencedtheimpossibilityofresistance，andnecessityhadlaiduponhimitssternlaws。

Fortunefavouredhimatthecommencementofhisreign，andhisarmswerevictoriousagainsttheSwedes。Thelatter，underthecommandofthevictoriousBanner，had，aftertheirsuccessatWittstock，takenuptheirwinterquartersinSaxony；andthecampaignof1637openedwiththesiegeofLeipzig。Thevigorousresistanceofthegarrison，andtheapproachoftheElectoralandImperialarmies，savedthetown，andBanner，topreventhiscommunicationwiththeElbebeingcutoff，wascompelledtoretreatintoTorgau。ButthesuperiornumberoftheImperialistsdrovehimevenfromthatquarter；

and，surroundedbytheenemy，hemmedinbyrivers，andsufferingfromfamine，hehadnocourseopentohimbuttoattemptahighlydangerousretreatintoPomerania，ofwhich，theboldnessandsuccessfulissueborderuponromance。ThewholearmycrossedtheOder，atafordnearFurstenberg；andthesoldiers，wadinguptotheneckinwater，draggedtheartilleryacross，whenthehorsesrefusedtodraw。

BannerhadexpectedtobejoinedbyGeneralWrangel，onthefarthersideoftheOderinPomerania；and，inconjunctionwithhim，tobeabletomakeheadagainsttheenemy。ButWrangeldidnotappear；

andinhisstead，hefoundanImperialarmypostedatLandsberg，withaviewtocutofftheretreatoftheSwedes。Bannernowsawthathehadfallenintoadangeroussnare，fromwhichescapeappearedimpossible。Inhisrearlayanexhaustedcountry，theImperialists，andtheOderonhisleft；

theOder，too，guardedbytheImperialGeneralBucheim，offerednoretreat；

infront，Landsberg，Custrin，theWarta，andahostilearmy；

andontheright，Poland，inwhich，notwithstandingthetruce，littleconfidencecouldbeplaced。Inthesecircumstances，hispositionseemedhopeless，andtheImperialistswerealreadytriumphinginthecertaintyofhisfall。Banner，withjustindignation，accusedtheFrenchastheauthorsofthismisfortune。

Theyhadneglectedtomake，accordingtotheirpromise，adiversionupontheRhine；and，bytheirinaction，allowedtheEmperortocombinehiswholeforceupontheSwedes。"Whenthedaycomes，"

criedtheincensedGeneraltotheFrenchCommissioner，whofollowedthecamp，"thattheSwedesandGermansjointheirarmsagainstFrance，weshallcrosstheRhinewithlessceremony。"Butreproacheswerenowuseless；whattheemergencydemandedwasenergyandresolution。

InthehopeofdrawingtheenemybystratagemfromtheOder，BannerpretendedtomarchtowardsPoland，anddespatchedthegreaterpartofhisbaggageinthisdirection，withhisownwife，andthoseoftheotherofficers。

TheImperialistsimmediatelybrokeuptheircamp，andhurriedtowardsthePolishfrontiertoblockuptheroute；Bucheimlefthisstation，andtheOderwasstrippedofitsdefenders。Onasudden，andundercloudofnight，Bannerturnedtowardsthatriver，andcrosseditaboutamileaboveCustrin，withhistroops，baggage，andartillery，withoutbridgesorvessels，ashehaddonebeforeatFurstenberg。

HereachedPomeraniawithoutloss，andpreparedtosharewithWrangelthedefenceofthatprovince。

ButtheImperialists，underthecommandofGallas，enteredthatduchyatRibses，andoverranitbytheirsuperiorstrength。UsedomandWolgastweretakenbystorm，Demmincapitulated，andtheSwedesweredrivenfarintoLowerPomerania。Itwas，too，moreimportantforthematthismomentthanever，tomaintainafootinginthatcountry，forBogislausXIV。haddiedthatyear，andSwedenmustpreparetoestablishitstitletoPomerania。TopreventtheElectorofBrandenburgfrommakinggoodthetitletothatduchy，whichthetreatyofPraguehadgivenhim，Swedenexertedherutmostenergies，andsupporteditsgeneralstotheextentofherability，bothwithtroopsandmoney。

Inotherquartersofthekingdom，theaffairsoftheSwedesbegantowearamorefavourableaspect，andtorecoverfromthehumiliationintowhichtheyhadbeenthrownbytheinactionofFrance，andthedesertionoftheirallies。For，aftertheirhastyretreatintoPomerania，theyhadlostoneplaceafteranotherinUpperSaxony；

theprincesofMecklenburg，closelypressedbythetroopsoftheEmperor，begantoleantothesideofAustria，andevenGeorge，DukeofLunenburg，declaredagainstthem。EhrenbreitsteinwasstarvedintoasurrenderbytheBavarianGeneraldeWerth，andtheAustrianspossessedthemselvesofalltheworkswhichhadbeenthrownupontheRhine。FrancehadbeenthesuffererinthecontestwithSpain；andtheeventhadbynomeansjustifiedthepompousexpectationswhichhadaccompaniedtheopeningofthecampaign。EveryplacewhichtheSwedeshadheldintheinteriorofGermanywaslost；andonlytheprincipaltownsinPomeraniastillremainedintheirhands。Butasinglecampaignraisedthemfromthisstateofhumiliation；andthevigorousdiversion，whichthevictoriousBernardhadeffectedupontheRhine，gavequiteanewturntoaffairs。

ThemisunderstandingsbetweenFranceandSwedenwerenowatlastadjusted，andtheoldtreatybetweenthesepowersconfirmedatHamburg，withfreshadvantagesforSweden。InHesse，thepoliticLandgravineAmeliahad，withtheapprobationoftheEstates，assumedthegovernmentafterthedeathofherhusband，andresolutelymaintainedherrightsagainsttheEmperorandtheHouseofDarmstadt。AlreadyzealouslyattachedtotheSwedishProtestantparty，onreligiousgrounds，sheonlyawaitedafavourableopportunityopenlytodeclareherself。Byartfuldelays，andbyprolongingthenegociationswiththeEmperor，shehadsucceededinkeepinghiminactive，tillshehadconcludedasecretcompactwithFrance，andthevictoriesofDukeBernardhadgivenafavourableturntotheaffairsoftheProtestants。Shenowatoncethrewoffthemask，andrenewedherformeralliancewiththeSwedishcrown。

TheElectoralPrinceofthePalatinatewasalsostimulated，bythesuccessofBernard，totryhisfortuneagainstthecommonenemy。

RaisingtroopsinHollandwithEnglishmoney，heformedamagazineatMeppen，andjoinedtheSwedesinWestphalia。Hismagazinewas，however，quicklylost；

hisarmydefeatednearFlotha，byCountHatzfeld；buthisattemptservedtooccupyforsometimetheattentionoftheenemy，andtherebyfacilitatedtheoperationsoftheSwedesinotherquarters。

Otherfriendsbegantoappear，asfortunedeclaredintheirfavour，andthecircumstance，thattheStatesofLowerSaxonyembracedaneutrality，wasofitselfnoinconsiderableadvantage。

Undertheseadvantages，andreinforcedby14，000freshtroopsfromSwedenandLivonia。Banneropened，withthemostfavourableprospects，thecampaignof1638。TheImperialistswhowereinpossessionofUpperPomeraniaandMecklenburg，eitherabandonedtheirpositions，ordesertedincrowdstotheSwedes，toavoidthehorrorsoffamine，themostformidableenemyinthisexhaustedcountry。ThewholecountrybetwixttheElbeandtheOderwassodesolatedbythepastmarchingsandquarteringsofthetroops，that，inordertosupporthisarmyonitsmarchintoSaxonyandBohemia，BannerwasobligedtotakeacircuitousroutefromLowerPomeraniaintoLowerSaxony，andthenintotheElectorateofSaxonythroughtheterritoryofHalberstadt。TheimpatienceoftheLowerSaxonStatestogetridofsuchtroublesomeguests，procuredhimsoplentifulasupplyofprovisions，thathewasprovidedwithbreadinMagdeburgitself，wherefaminehadevenovercomethenaturalantipathyofmentohumanflesh。HisapproachspreadconsternationamongtheSaxons；buthisviewsweredirectednotagainstthisexhaustedcountry，butagainstthehereditarydominionsoftheEmperor。ThevictoriesofBernardencouragedhim，whiletheprosperityoftheAustrianprovincesexcitedhishopesofbooty。

AfterdefeatingtheImperialGeneralSalis，atElsterberg，totallyroutingtheSaxonarmyatChemnitz，andtakingPirna，hepenetratedwithirresistibleimpetuosityintoBohemia，crossedtheElbe，threatenedPrague，tookBrandeisandLeutmeritz，defeatedGeneralHofkirchenwithtenregiments，andspreadterroranddevastationthroughthatdefencelesskingdom。Bootywashissoleobject，andwhateverhecouldnotcarryoffhedestroyed。Inordertoremovemoreofthecorn，theearswerecutfromthestalks，andthelatterburnt。

Aboveathousandcastles，hamlets，andvillageswerelaidinashes；

sometimesmorethanahundredwereseenburninginonenight。

FromBohemiahecrossedintoSilesia，anditwashisintentiontocarryhisravagesevenintoMoraviaandAustria。Buttopreventthis，CountHatzfeldwassummonedfromWestphalia，andPiccolominifromtheNetherlands，tohastenwithallspeedtothisquarter。

TheArchdukeLeopold，brothertotheEmperor，assumedthecommand，inordertorepairtheerrorsofhispredecessorGallas，andtoraisethearmyfromthelowebbtowhichithadfallen。

Theresultjustifiedthechange，andthecampaignof1640appearedtotakeamostunfortunateturnfortheSwedes。TheyweresuccessivelydrivenoutofalltheirpostsinBohemia，andanxiousonlytosecuretheirplunder，theyprecipitatelycrossedtheheightsofMeissen。ButbeingfollowedintoSaxonybythepursuingenemy，anddefeatedatPlauen，theywereobligedtotakerefugeinThuringia。Mademastersofthefieldinasinglesummer，theywereasrapidlydispossessed；butonlytoacquireitasecondtime，andtohurryfromoneextremetoanother。ThearmyofBanner，weakenedandonthebrinkofdestructioninitscampatErfurt，suddenlyrecovereditself。TheDukeofLunenburgabandonedthetreatyofPrague，andjoinedBannerwiththeverytroopswhich，theyearbefore，hadfoughtagainsthim。HesseCasselsentreinforcements，andtheDukeofLonguevillecametohissupportwiththearmyofthelateDukeBernard。OncemorenumericallysuperiortotheImperialists，BannerofferedthembattlenearSaalfeld；buttheirleader，Piccolomini，prudentlydeclinedanengagement，havingchosentoostrongapositiontobeforced。WhentheBavariansatlengthseparatedfromtheImperialists，andmarchedtowardsFranconia，Bannerattemptedanattackuponthisdividedcorps，buttheattemptwasfrustratedbytheskilloftheBavarianGeneralVonMercy，andthenearapproachofthemainbodyoftheImperialists。

BotharmiesnowmovedintotheexhaustedterritoryofHesse，wheretheyformedintrenchedcampsneareachother，tillatlastfamineandtheseverityofthewintercompelledthembothtoretire。

PiccolominichosethefertilebanksoftheWeserforhiswinterquarters；

butbeingoutflankedbyBanner，hewasobligedtogivewaytotheSwedes，andtoimposeontheFranconianseestheburdenofmaintaininghisarmy。

Atthisperiod，adietwasheldinRatisbon，wherethecomplaintsoftheStatesweretobeheard，measurestakenforsecuringthereposeoftheEmpire，andthequestionofpeaceorwarfinallysettled。

ThepresenceoftheEmperor，themajorityoftheRomanCatholicvoicesintheElectoralCollege，thegreatnumberofbishops，andthewithdrawalofseveraloftheProtestantvotes，gavetheEmperoracompletecommandofthedeliberationsoftheassembly，andrenderedthisdietanythingbutafairrepresentativeoftheopinionsoftheGermanEmpire。TheProtestants，withreason，considereditasamerecombinationofAustriaanditscreaturesagainsttheirparty；

anditseemedtothemalaudableefforttointerruptitsdeliberations，andtodissolvethedietitself。

Bannerundertookthisboldenterprise。HismilitaryreputationhadsufferedbyhislastretreatfromBohemia，anditstoodinneedofsomegreatexploittorestoreitsformerlustre。Withoutcommunicatinghisdesignstoanyone，inthedepthofthewinterof1641，assoonastheroadsandriverswerefrozen，hebrokeupfromhisquartersinLunenburg。AccompaniedbyMarshalGuebriant，whocommandedthearmiesofFranceandWeimar，hetooktheroutetowardstheDanube，throughThuringiaandVogtland，andappearedbeforeRatisbon，eretheDietcouldbeapprisedofhisapproach。

Theconsternationoftheassemblywasindescribable；and，inthefirstalarm，thedeputiespreparedforflight。TheEmperoralonedeclaredthathewouldnotleavethetown，andencouragedtherestbyhisexample。

UnfortunatelyfortheSwedes，athawcameon，whichbrokeuptheiceupontheDanube，sothatitwasnolongerpassableonfoot，whilenoboatscouldcrossit，onaccountofthequantitiesoficewhichweresweptdownbythecurrent。Inordertoperformsomething，andtohumbletheprideoftheEmperor，Bannerdiscourteouslyfired500cannonshotsintothetown，which，however，didlittlemischief。

Baffledinhisdesigns，heresolvedtopenetratefartherintoBavaria，andthedefencelessprovinceofMoravia，wherearichbootyandcomfortablequartersawaitedhistroops。Guebriant，however，begantofearthatthepurposeoftheSwedeswastodrawthearmyofBernardawayfromtheRhine，andtocutoffitscommunicationwithFrance，tillitshouldbeeitherentirelywonover，orincapacitatedfromactingindependently。HethereforeseparatedfromBannertoreturntotheMaine；andthelatterwasexposedtothewholeforceoftheImperialists，whichhadbeensecretlydrawntogetherbetweenRatisbonandIngoldstadt，andwasonitsmarchagainsthim。

Itwasnowtimetothinkofarapidretreat，which，havingtobeeffectedinthefaceofanarmysuperiorincavalry，andbetwixtwoodsandrivers，throughacountryentirelyhostile，appearedalmostimpracticable。

HehastilyretiredtowardstheForest，intendingtopenetratethroughBohemiaintoSaxony；buthewasobligedtosacrificethreeregimentsatNeuburg。

ThesewithatrulySpartancourage，defendedthemselvesforfourdaysbehindanoldwall，andgainedtimeforBannertoescape。

HeretreatedbyEgratoAnnaberg；Piccolominitookashorterrouteinpursuit，bySchlakenwald；andBannersucceeded，onlybyasinglehalfhour，inclearingthePassofPrisnitz，andsavinghiswholearmyfromtheImperialists。AtZwickauhewasagainjoinedbyGuebriant；

andbothgeneralsdirectedtheirmarchtowardsHalberstadt，afterinvainattemptingtodefendtheSaal，andtopreventthepassageoftheImperialists。

Banner，atlength，terminatedhiscareeratHalberstadt，inMay1641，avictimtovexationanddisappointment。Hesustainedwithgreatrenown，thoughwithvaryingsuccess，thereputationoftheSwedisharmsinGermany，andbyatrainofvictoriesshowedhimselfworthyofhisgreatmasterintheartofwar。Hewasfertileinexpedients，whichheplannedwithsecrecy，andexecutedwithboldness；cautiousinthemidstofdangers，greaterinadversitythaninprosperity，andnevermoreformidablethanwhenuponthebrinkofdestruction。Butthevirtuesoftheherowereunitedwithalltherailingsandviceswhichamilitarylifecreates，oratleastfosters。Asimperiousinprivatelifeashewasattheheadofhisarmy，rudeashisprofession，andproudasaconqueror；

heoppressedtheGermanprincesnolessbyhishaughtiness，thantheircountrybyhiscontributions。Heconsoledhimselfforthetoilsofwarinvoluptuousnessandthepleasuresofthetable，inwhichheindulgedtoexcess，andwasthusbroughttoanearlygrave。

ButthoughasmuchaddictedtopleasureasAlexanderorMahomettheSecond，hehurriedfromthearmsofluxuryintothehardestfatigues，andplacedhimselfinallhisvigourattheheadofhisarmy，attheverymomenthissoldiersweremurmuringathisluxuriousexcesses。

Nearly80，000menfellinthenumerousbattleswhichhefought，andabout600hostilestandardsandcolours，whichhesenttoStockholm，werethetrophiesofhisvictories。ThewantofthisgreatgeneralwassoonseverelyfeltbytheSwedes，whofeared，withjustice，thatthelosswouldnotreadilybereplaced。Thespiritofrebellionandinsubordination，whichhadbeenoverawedbytheimperiousdemeanourofthisdreadedcommander，awokeuponhisdeath。Theofficers，withanalarmingunanimity，demandedpaymentoftheirarrears；andnoneofthefourgeneralswhosharedthecommand，possessedinfluenceenoughtosatisfythesedemands，ortosilencethemalcontents。Alldisciplinewasatanend，increasingwant，andtheimperialcitationsweredailydiminishingthenumberofthearmy；thetroopsofFranceandWeimarshowedlittlezeal；

thoseofLunenburgforsooktheSwedishcolours；thePrincesalsooftheHouseofBrunswick，afterthedeathofDukeGeorge，hadformedaseparatetreatywiththeEmperor；andatlasteventhoseofHessequittedthem，toseekbetterquartersinWestphalia。

Theenemyprofitedbythesecalamitousdivisions；andalthoughdefeatedwithlossintwopitchedbattles，succeededinmakingconsiderableprogressinLowerSaxony。

AtlengthappearedthenewSwedishgeneralissimo，withfreshtroopsandmoney。

ThiswasBernardTorstensohn，apupilofGustavusAdolphus，andhismostsuccessfulimitator，whohadbeenhispageduringthePolishwar。

Thoughamartyrtothegout，andconfinedtoalitter，hesurpassedallhisopponentsinactivity；andhisenterpriseshadwings，whilehisbodywasheldbythemostfrightfuloffetters。

Underhim，thesceneofwarwaschanged，andnewmaximsadopted，whichnecessitydictated，andtheissuejustified。Allthecountriesinwhichthecontesthadhithertoragedwereexhausted；

whiletheHouseofAustria，safeinitsmoredistantterritories，feltnotthemiseriesofthewarunderwhichtherestofGermanygroaned。

Torstensohnfirstfurnishedthemwiththisbitterexperience，gluttedhisSwedesonthefertileproduceofAustria，andcarriedthetorchofwartotheveryfootstepsoftheimperialthrone。

InSilesia，theenemyhadgainedconsiderableadvantagesovertheSwedishgeneralStalhantsch，anddrivenhimasfarasNeumark。

Torstensohn，whohadjoinedthemainbodyoftheSwedesinLunenburg，summonedhimtounitewithhisforce，andintheyear1642hastilymarchedintoSilesiathroughBrandenburg，which，underitsgreatElector，hadbeguntomaintainanarmedneutrality。Glogauwascarried，swordinhand，withoutabreach，orformalapproaches；theDukeFrancisAlbertofLauenburgdefeatedandkilledatSchweidnitz；andSchweidnitzitselfwithalmostallthetownsonthatsideoftheOder，taken。

HenowpenetratedwithirresistibleviolenceintotheinteriorofMoravia，wherenoenemyofAustriahadhithertoappeared，tookOlmutz，andthrewViennaitselfintoconsternation。

But，inthemeantime，PiccolominiandtheArchdukeLeopoldhadcollectedasuperiorforce，whichspeedilydrovetheSwedishconquerorsfromMoravia，andafterafruitlessattemptuponBrieg，fromSilesia。

ReinforcedbyWrangel，theSwedesagainattemptedtomakeheadagainsttheenemy，andrelievedGrossglogau；butcouldneitherbringtheImperialiststoanengagement，norcarryintoeffecttheirownviewsuponBohemia。OverrunningLusatia，theytookZittau，inpresenceoftheenemy，andafterashortstayinthatcountry，directedtheirmarchtowardstheElbe，whichtheypassedatTorgau。

TorstensohnnowthreatenedLeipzigwithasiege，andhopedtoraisealargesupplyofprovisionsandcontributionsfromthatprosperoustown，whichfortenyearshadbeenunvisitedwiththescourgeofwar。

TheImperialists，underLeopoldandPiccolomini，immediatelyhastenedbyDresdentoitsrelief，andTorstensohn，toavoidbeinginclosedbetweenthisarmyandthetown，boldlyadvancedtomeettheminorderofbattle。

Byastrangecoincidence，thetwoarmiesmetupontheveryspotwhich，elevenyearsbefore，GustavusAdolphushadrenderedremarkablebyadecisivevictory；andtheheroismoftheirpredecessors，nowkindledintheSwedesanobleemulationonthisconsecratedground。

TheSwedishgenerals，StahlhantschandWellenberg，ledtheirdivisionswithsuchimpetuosityupontheleftwingoftheImperialists，beforeitwascompletelyformed，thatthewholecavalrythatcovereditweredispersedandrenderedunserviceable。ButtheleftoftheSwedeswasthreatenedwithasimilarfate，whenthevictoriousrightadvancedtoitsassistance，tooktheenemyinflankandrear，anddividedtheAustrianline。Theinfantryonbothsidesstoodfirmasawall，andwhentheirammunitionwasexhausted，maintainedthecombatwiththebutt-endsoftheirmuskets，tillatlasttheImperialists，completelysurrounded，afteracontestofthreehours，werecompelledtoabandonthefield。

Thegeneralsonbothsideshadmorethanoncetorallytheirflyingtroops；

andtheArchdukeLeopold，withhisregiment，wasthefirstintheattackandlastinflight。ButthisbloodyvictorycosttheSwedesmorethan3000men，andtwooftheirbestgenerals，SchlangenandLilienhoeck。