第2章

Manor，asinthecommonfieldsitisintheparticulartenant。’Thefeudal

lawyershaddevelopedadoctrinethatthesoilofthewastewasvestedin

theLordoftheManor，andthatoriginallyithadallbelongedtohim。But

feudallawacknowledgedcertaindefinitelimitationstohisrightsoverthe

waste。TheStatuteofMerton，1235，allowedhimtomakeenclosuresonthe

waste，butonlyoncertainterms；hewasobligedtoleaveenoughofthewaste

fortheneedsofhistenants。Moreover，hispowerswerelimited，notonly

bytheconcurrentrightsoffreeholdersandcopyholdersthusrecognisedby

thisancientlaw，butalsobycertaincommonrightsofpastureandturbary

enjoyedbypersonswhowereneitherfreeholdersnorcopyholders，namelycottagers。

Theserightswereexplainedbythelawyersofthetimeasbeingconcessions

madebytheLordoftheManorinremoteantiquity。TheLordoftheManor

wasregardedastheownerofthewaste，subjecttothesecommonrights：that

is，hewasregardedasowningthemineralsandthesurfacerights(sandand

gravel)aswellassportingrights。

Everygradeofpropertyandstatuswasrepresentedintheranksofthe

freeholders，thecopyholdersandthetenantfarmers，fromthemanwhoemployed

otherstoworkforhimtothemanwhowassometimesemployedinworkingfor

others。Nodistinctline，infact，canbedrawnbetweenthesmallfarmer，

whetherfreeholder，copyholderortenant，andthecottager，forthecottager

mighteitherownorrentafewstrips；thebestdividing-linecanbedrawn

betweenthosewhomadetheirlivingmainlyasfarmers，andthosewhomade

theirlivingmainlyaslabourers。

Itisimportanttorememberthatnofarmer，howeverlargehisholdings

orproperty，orhoweverimportanthissocialposition，wasatlibertyto

cultivatehisstripsashepleased。Thesystemofcultivationwouldbesettled

forhimbytheJuryoftheManorCourt，acourtthathaddifferentnames

indifferentplaces。Bytheeighteenthcenturythevariouscourtsofthe

manorialjurisdictionhadbeenmergedinasinglecourt，calledindifferently

theViewofFrankpledge，theCourtLeet，theCourtBaron，theGreatCourt

ortheLittleCourt，whichtransactedsomuchofthebusinesshithertoconfided

tovariouscourtsashadnotbeenassignedtotheJusticesofthePeace。(4*)

Mostofthemenofthevillage，freeholders，copyholders，leaseholders，Or

cottagers，attendedthecourt，buttheconstitutionoftheJuryorHomage

seemstohavevariedindifferentmanors。Sometimesthetenantsofthemanor

weretakenhaphazardinrotation：sometimesthestewardcontrolledthechoice，

sometimesanomineeofthestewardoranomineeofthetenantsselectedthe

Jury：sometimesthestewardtooknopartintheselectionatall。Thechief

partofthebusinessofthesecourtsintheeighteenthcenturywasthemanagement

ofthecommonfieldsandcommonpastures，andtheappointmentofthevillage

officers。Thesecourtsdecidedwhichseedshouldbesowninthedifferent

fields，andthedatesatwhichtheyweretobeopenedandclosedtocommon

pasture。Underthemostprimitivesystemofrotationthearablelandwas

dividedintothreefields，ofwhichonewassownwithwheat，anotherwith

springcorn，andthethirdlayfallow：butbytheendoftheeighteenthcentury

therewasagreatvarietyofcultivation，andwefindanineyears’course

atGreatTewinOxfordshire，asixyears’courseinBerkshire，whilethe

Batterseacommonfieldsweresownwithoneuniformroundofgrainwithout

intermission，andconsequentlywithoutfallowing。(5*)

BySirRichardSutton’sAct(6*)forthecultivationofcommonfields，

passedin1773，amajorityofthree-fourthsinnumberandvalueoftheoccupiers，

withtheconsentoftheownerandtitheholder，wasempoweredtodecideon

thecourseofhusbandry，toregulatestintedcommons，and，withtheconsent

oftheLordoftheManor，toletoffatwelfthofthecommon，applyingthe

renttodrainingorimprovingtherestofit。(7*)BeforethisAct，auniversal

consenttoanychangeofsystemwasnecessary。(8*)Thecultivationofstrips

inthearablefieldscarriedwithitrightsofcommonoverthewasteand

alsooverthecommonfieldswhentheywerethrownopen。Theserightswere

knownas’commonappendant’andtheyarethusdefinedbyBlackstone：’Common

appendantisarightbelongingtotheownersoroccupiersofarableland

toputcommonablebeastsupontheLord’swasteanduponthelandsofother

personswithinthesamemanor。’

Theclassesmakingtheirlivingmainlyaslabourerswerethecottagers，

farmservants，andsquatters。Thecottagerseitherownedoroccupiedcottages

andhadrightsofcommononthewaste，andinsomecasesoverthecommon

fields。Theserightswereofvariouskinds：theygenerallyincludedtheright

topasturecertainanimals，tocutturfandtogetfuel。Thecottagers，as

wehavealreadysaid，oftenownedorrentedland。Thisisspokenofasa

commonpracticebyAddington，whoknewtheMidlandcountieswell；Arthur

YounggivesinstancesfromLincolnshireandOxfordshire，andEdenfromLeicestershire

andSurrey。Thesquattersorbordererswere，byorigin，aseparateclass，

thoughintimetheymergedintothecottagers。Theyweresettlerswhobuilt

themselveshutsandclearedapieceoflandinthecommonsorwoods，atsome

distancefromthevillage。Theseencroachmentsweregenerallysanctioned。

Acommonruleinonepartofthecountrywasthattherightwasestablished

ifthesettlercouldbuildhiscottageinthenightandsendoutsmokefrom

hischimneyinthemorning。(9*)Thesquattersalsooftenwentoutasday

labourers。Thefarmservantswereusuallythechildrenofthesmallfarmers

orcottagers；theylivedintheirmasters’housesuntiltheyhadsavedenough

moneytomarryandtakeacottageoftheirown。

Werethereanydaylabourerswithouteitherlandorcommonrightsinthe

oldvillage？Itisdifficulttosupposethatthereweremany。(10*)Blackstone

saidofcommonappurtenantthatitwasnotageneralright’butcanonly

beclaimedbyspecialgrantorbyprescription，whichthelawesteemssufficient

proofofaspecialgrantoragreementforthispurpose。’Prescriptioncovers

amultitudeofencroachments。Indeed，itwasonlybytheingenuityofthe

feudallawyersthattheserightsdidnotattachtotheinhabitantsofthe

villageatlarge。TheselawyershaddecidedinGateward’scase，1603，that

’inhabitants’weretoovagueabodytoenjoyaright，andonthisground

theyhaddeprivedtheinhabitantsofthevillageofStixswoldinLincolnshire

oftheircustomaryrightofturningoutcattleonthewaste。(11*)Fromthat

timeacharterofincorporationwasnecessarytoenabletheinhabitantsat

largetoprovealegalclaimtocommonrights。Butrightsthatwereenjoyed

bytheoccupiersofsmallholdingsorofcottagesbylongprescription，or

byencroachmentstacitlysanctioned，musthavebeenverywidelyscattered。

Suchweretheclassesinhabitingtheeighteenth-centuryvillage。Asthe

holdingsinthecommonfieldscouldbesold，thepropertymightchangehands，

thoughitremainedsubjecttocommonrightsandtothegeneralregulations

ofthemanorcourt。Consequentlythevillagesexhibitedgreatvarietiesof

character。Inonevillageitmighthappenthatstripafterstriphadbeen

boughtupbytheLordoftheManororsomeproprietor，untilthegreater

partofthearablefieldshadcomeintothepossessionofasingleowner。

Insucheases，however，thelandsopurchasedwasstillletoutasarule

toanumberofsmallmen，fortheengrossingoffarmsasapracticecomes

intofashionafterenclosure。Sometimessuchpurchasewasapreliminaryto

enclosure。TheBedfordshirereportergivesanexampleinthevillageofBolnhurst，

inthatcounty。Threelandspeculatorsboughtupasmuchofthelandasthey

couldwithaviewtoenclosingthecommonfieldsandthensellingatalarge

profit。Butthelandturnedouttobemuchlessvaluablethantheyhadsupposed，

andtheycouldnotgetitofftheirhands：allimprovementswereatastandstill，

forthespeculatorsonlyletfromyeartoyear，hopingstilltofindamarket。

Inothervillages，landmighthavechangedhandsinjusttheoppositedirection。

TheLordoftheManormightsellhispropertyinthecommonfields，andsell

itnottosomecapitalistormerchant，buttoanumberofsmallfarmers。

WelearnfromtheevidenceoftheCommitteeof1844onenclosuresthatsometimes

theLordoftheManorsoldhispropertyinthewastetothecommoners。Thus

therewerevillageswithfewowners，astherewerevillageswithmanyowners。

ThewriteroftheReportonMiddlesex，whichwaspublishedin1798says，

’Ihaveknownthirtylandlordsinafieldof200acres，andtheproperty

ofeachsodividedastolieintenortwentyplaces，containingfroman

acreortwodownwardstofifteenperches；andinafieldof300acresIhave

metwithpatchesofarableland，containingeightpercheseach。Inthisinstance

theaveragesizeofallthepiecesinthefieldwasunderanacre。Inall

casestheylieinlong，narrow，windingorworm-likeslips。’(13*)

Thesamewriterstatesthatatthetimehisbookwaswritten(1798)20，000

outofthe23，000arableacresinMiddlesexwerecultivatedonthecommon-field

system。(14*)PerhapstheparishofStanwell，ofwhichwedescribetheenclosure

indetailelsewhere，maybetakenasafairexampleofaneighteenth-century

village。Inthisparishtherewere，accordingtotheenclosureaward，four

largeproprietors，twenty-fourmoderateproprietors，twenty-foursmallproprietors，

andsixty-sixcottagerswithcommonrights。

Themostimportantsocialfactaboutthissystemisthatitprovidedopportunities

forthehumblestandpoorestlabourertoriseinthevillage。Population

seemstohavemovedslowly，andthustherewasnofeverishcompetitionfor

land。Thefarmservantcouldsaveuphiswagesandbeginhismarriedlife

byhiringacottagewhichcarriedrightsofcommon，andgraduallybuyor

hirestripsofland。Everyvillage，asHasbachhasputit，haditsladder，

andnobodywasdoomedtostayonthelowestrung。Thisisthedistinguishing

markoftheoldvillage。Itwouldbeeasy，lookingonlyatthisfeature，

toidealisethesocietythatwehavedescribed，andtopaintthisageas

anageofgold。ButnoreaderofFieldingorofRichardsonwouldfallinto

thismistake，orpersuadehimselfthatthiscommunitywasasocietyoffree

andequalmen，inwhichtyrannywasimpossible。Theoldvillagewasunder

theshadowofthesquireandtheparson，andthereweremanywaysinwhich

thesepowerscontrolledandhampereditspleasuresandhabits：therewere

quarrels，too，betweenfarmersandcottagers，andtherearemanycomplaints

thatthefarmerstriedtotakethelion’sshareofthecommons：but，whatever

thepressureoutsideandwhateverthebickeringswithin，itremainstrue

thatthecommon-fieldsystemformedaworldinwhichthevillagerslived

theirownlivesandcultivatedthesoilonabasisofindependence。

Itwasthiscommunitythatnowpassedundertheunqualifiedruleofthe

oligarchy。Underthatruleitwastodisappear。Enclosurewasnonewmenace

tothepoor。Englishliteraturebeforetheeighteenthcenturyechoesthe

dismayandlamentationsofpreachersandprophetswhowitnessedthehavoc

thatitspread。Stubbeshadwrittenin1553hisbitterprotestagainstthe

enclosureswhichenabledrichmentoeatuppoormen，andtwentyyearslater

awriterhadgivenasombrelandscapeofthenewfarming：’Wemayseemany

oftheirhousesbuiltalonelikeravens’nests，nobirdsbuildingnearthem。’

TheMidlandshadbeenthechiefsceneofthesechanges，andtheretheconversion

ofarablelandintopasturehadswallowedupgreattractsofcommonagriculture，

provokinginsomecasesanarmedresistance。Theenclosuresofthiscentury

werethesecondandthegreateroftwowaves。(15*)Inonerespectenclosure

wasinformmoredifficultnowthaninearlierperiods，foritwasgenerally

understoodatthistimethatanActofParliamentwasnecessary。Inreality

therewaslesscheckontheprocess。Forhithertotheenclosingclasshad

hadtoreckonwiththeoccasionalpanicorill-temperoftheCrown。NoEnglish

king，itistrue，hadintervenedintheinterestsofthepoorsodramatically

asdidtheearlierandunspoiltLouisXIV，whorestoredtotheFrenchvillage

assembliesthepubliclandstheyhadalienatedwithinacertainperiod。But

theCrownhadnotaltogetheroverlookedtheinterestsoftheclasseswho

wereruinedbyenclosure，andindifferentwaysithadtriedtomodifythe

worstconsequencesofthispolicy。From1490to1601therewerevariousActs

andproclamationsdesignedforthispurpose。CharlesIhadactuallyannulled

theenclosuresoftwoyearsincertainmidlandcounties，severalCommissions

hadbeenissued，andtheStarChamberhadinstitutedproceedingsagainst

enclosuresonthegroundthatdepopulationwasanoffenceagainsttheCommon

Law。Mr。FirthholdsthatCromwell’sinfluenceintheeasterncountieswas

duetohischampionshipofthecommonersinthefens。Throughoutthistime，

howeverineffectualtheinterventionoftheCrown，theinterestsoftheclasses

towhomenclosuresbroughtwealthandpowerwerenotallowedtoobliterate

allotherconsiderations。