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Methods of Ethics
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第16章

AndduringthefirstperiodofethicalcontroversyinmodernEngland,aftertheaudaciousenunciationofEgoismbyHobbesbadrousedinrealearnestthesearchforaphilosophicalbasisofmorality,UtilitarianismappearsinfriendlyalliancewithIntuitionism。ItwasnottosupersedebuttosupportthemoralityofCommonSense,againstthedangerousinnovationsofHobbes,thatCumberlanddeclared``thecommongoodofallRationals’’tobetheendtowhichmoralruleswerethemeans。WefindhimquotedwithapprovalbyClarke,whoiscommonlytakentorepresentIntuitionisminanextremeform。NordoesShaftesbury,inintroducingthetheoryofa``moralsense’’,seemtohavedreamtthatitcouldeverimpelustoactionsnotclearlyconducivetotheGoodoftheWhole:antihisdiscipleHutchesonexpresslyidentifieditspromptingswiththoseofBenevolence。Butler,Ithink,wasourfirstinfluentialwriterwhodweltonthediscrepanciesbetweenVirtueascommonlyunderstoodand``conductlikeliesttoproduceanoverbalanceofhappiness’’。[5]WhenHumepresentedUtilitarianismasamodeofexplainingcurrentmorality,itwasseenorsuspectedtohaveapartiallydestructivetendency。ButitwasnottillthetimeofPaleyandBenthamthatitwasofferedasamethodfordeterminingconduct,whichwastooverrulealltraditionalpreceptsandsupersedeallexistingmoralsentiments。Andeventhisfinalantagonismrelatesrathertotheoryandmethodthantopracticalresults:practicalconflict,inordinaryhumanminds,ismainlybetweenSelf-interestandSocialDutyhoweverdetermined。Indeed,fromapracticalpointofviewtheprincipleofaimingatthe``greatesthappinessofthegreatestnumber’’

isprimafaciemoredefinitelyopposedtoEgoismthantheCommon-Sensemoralityis。Forthislatterseemstoleaveamanfreetopursuehisownhappinessundercertaindefinitelimitsandconditions:whereasUtilitarianismseemstorequireamorecomprehensiveandunceasingsubordinationofself-interesttothecommongood。Andthus,asMillremarks,Utilitarianismissometimesattackedfromtwopreciselyoppositesides:fromaconfusionwithEgoisticHedonismitiscalledbaseandgrovelling;whileatthesametimeitismoreplausiblychargedwithsettinguptoohighastandardofunselfishnessandmakingexaggerateddemandsonhumannature。

Agooddealremainstobesaid,inordertomaketheprincipleandmethodofUtilitarianismperfectlyclearandexplicit:

butitseemsbesttodeferthistillwecometotheinvestigationofitsdetails。Itwillbeconvenienttotakethisasthefinalstageofourexaminationofmethods。ForontheonehanditissimplerthatthediscussionofEgoisticshouldprecedethatofUniversalisticHedonism;andontheother,itseemsdesirablethatweshouldobtaininasexactaformaspossibletheenunciationsofIntuitiveMorality,beforewecomparethesewiththeresultsofthemoredoubtfulanddifficultcalculationsofutilitarianconsequences。

IntheremainingchaptersofthisBookIshallendeavourtoremovecertainambiguitiesastothegeneralnatureandrelationsoftheothertwomethods,asdesignatedrespectivelybythetermsEgoismandIntuitionism,beforeproceedingtothefullerexaminationoftheminBooksii。andiii。{Note}

MEBook1Chapter6Section3Note6

NOTE——IhavecalledtheethicaldoctrinethattakesuniversalbappinessastheultimateendandstandardofrightconductbythenameofBentham,becausethethinkerswhohavechieflytaughtthisdoctrineillEnglandduringthepresentcenturyhavereferredittoBenthamastheirmaster。Anditcertainlyseemstomeclear——thoughMr。

Bain(cf。Mind,January1883,p。48)appearstodoubtit——thatBenthamadoptedthisdoctrineexplicitly,initsmostcomprehensivescope,attheearlieststageintheformationofhisopinions;nordoIthinkthatlieeverconsciouslyabandonedorqualifiedit。Wefindhimwritinginhiscommon-placebook,in1773——4(cf。Works,Bowring’sedition,vol。x。p。70),thatHelvetiushad``establishedastandardofrectitudeforactions’’;thestandardbeingthat``asortofactionisarightone,whenthetendencyofitistoaugmentthemassofhappinessinthecommunity’’。

Andwefindhimwritingfiftyyearslater(cf。Works,vol。x。p。

79)thefollowingaccountofhisearliestview,inapassagewhichcontainsnohintoflaterdissentfromit:——``ByanearlypamphletofPriestley’s?lightwasaddedtothewarmth。Inthephrase`thegreatesthappinessofthegreatestnumber’,Ithensawdelineated,forthefirsttime,aplainaswellasatruestandardforwhateverisrightorwrong?inhumanconduct,whetherinthefieldofmoralsorofpolitics’’。

AtthesametimeImustadmitthatinotherpassagesBenthamseemsnolessexplicitlytoadoptEgoisticHedonismasthemethodof`privateEthics’,asdistinctfromlegislation:andinhisposthumous`Deontology’thetwoprinciplesappeartobereconciledbythedoctrine,thatitisalwaystheindividual’strueinterest,evenfromapurelymundanepointofview,toactinthemannermostconducivetothegeneralhappiness。Thislatterproposition-whichIregardaserroneous-isnot,indeed,definitelyputforwardinanyofthetreatisespublishedbyBenthaminhislifetime,orcompletelypreparedbyhimforpublication:butitmaybeinferredfromhiscommon-placebookthatheheldit(seehisWorks,vol。x。pp……IntheprecedingchaptersIhaveusedtheterm``Egoism’’,asitismostcommonlyused,todenoteasystemwhichprescribesactionsasmeanstotheendoftheindividual’shappinessorpleasure。Therulingmotiveinsuchasystemiscommonlysaidtobe``self-love’’。

Butbothtermsadmitofotherinterpretations,whichitwillbewelltodistinguishandsetasidebeforeproceedingfurther。

Forexample,theterm``egoistic’’

isordinarilyandnotimproperlyappliedtothebasisonwhichHobbesattemptedtoconstructmorality;andonwhichalone,asheheld,thesocialordercouldfirmlyrest,andescapethestormsandconvulsionswithwhichitseemedtobemenacedfromthevagariesoftheunenlightenedconscience。

ButitisnotstrictlytheendofEgoismasIhavedefinedit——greatestattainablepleasurefortheindividual——butrather``self-preservation’’,whichdeterminesthefirstofthosepreceptsofrationalegoismwhichHobbescalls``LawsofNature’’,viz。,``Seekpeaceandensueit’’。AndinthedevelopmentofhissystemweoftenfindthatitisPreservationratherthanPleasure,orperhapsacompromisebetweenthetwo,thatistakenastheultimateendandstandardofrightconduct。

Again,inSpinoza’sviewtheprincipleofrationalactionisnecessarilyegoistic,andis(aswithHobbes)theimpulseofself-preservation。Theindividualmind,saysSpinoza,likeeverythingelse,strivessofarasitisabletocontinueinitsstateofbeing:indeedthiseffortisitsveryessence。Itistruethattheobjectofthisimpulsecannotbeseparatedfrompleasureorjoy;becausepleasureorjoyis``apassioninwhichthesoulpassestohigherperfection’’。StillitisnotatPleasurethattheimpulseprimarilyaims,butatthemind’sPerfectionorReality:asweshouldnowsay,atSelf-realisationorSelf-development。

Ofthis,accordingtoSpinoza,thehighestformconsistsinaclearcomprehensionofallthingsintheirnecessaryorderasmodificationsoftheoneDivineBeing,andthatwillingacceptanceofallwhichspringsfromthiscomprehension。

Inthisstatethemindispurelyactive,withoutanyadmixtureofpassionorpassivity:andthusitsessentialnatureisrealisedoractualisedtothegreatestpossibledegree。

WeperceivethatthisisthenotionofSelf-realisationasdefinednotonlybybutforaphilosopher:andthatitwouldmeansomethingquitedifferentinthecaseofamanofaction——such,forexample,asthereflectivedramatistofGermanyintroducesexclaiming

Ichkannmichnicht

WiesoeinWortheld,soeinTugend-Schwä;tzer

AnmeinemWillenwarmen,undGedanken?Wennichnichtwirkemehr,binichvernichtet。[2]Theartist,again,oftencontemplateshisproductionofthebeautifulasarealisationofself:andmoralistsofacertainturnofmind,inallages,havesimilarlyregardedthesacrificeofinclinationtodutyasthehighestformofSelf-developmentandheldthattrueself-lovepromptsusalwaystoobeythecommandsissuedbythegoverningprinciple——ReasonorConscience——withinus,asinsuchobedience,howeverpainful,weshallberealisingourtruestself。

Wesee,inshort,thatthetermEgoism,sofarasitmerelyimpliesthatreferenceismadetoselfinlayingdownfirstprinciplesofconduct,doesnotreallyindicateinanywaythesubstanceofsuchprinciples。Forallourimpulses,highandlow,sensualandmoralalike,aresofarsimilarlyrelatedtoself,that——exceptwhentwoormoreimpulsescomeintoconsciousconflict——wetendtoidentifyourselveswitheachasitarises。Thusself-consciousnessmaybeprominentinyieldingtoanyimpulse:andegoism,insofarasitmerelyimpliessuchprominence,isacommonformapplicabletoallprinciplesofaction。

Itmaybesaid,however,thatwedonot,properlyspeaking,`develop’or`realise’selfbyyieldingtotheimpulsewhichhappenstobepredominantinus;butbyexercising,eachinitsdueplaceandproperdegree,allthedifferentfaculties,capacities,andpropensities,ofwhichournatureismadeup。Butherethereisanimportantambiguity。

Whatdowemeanby`dueproportionandproperdegree’?Thesetermsmayimplyanideal,intoconformitywithwhichtheindividualmindhastobetrained,byrestrainingsomeofitsnaturalimpulsesandstrengtheningothers,anddevelopingitshigherfacultiesratherthanitslower:ortheymaymerelyrefertotheoriginalcombinationandproportionoftendenciesinthecharacterwithwhicheachisborn;tothis,itmaybemeant,weoughttoadaptasfaraspossiblethecircumstancesinwhichweplaceourselvesandthefunctionswhichwechoosetoexercise,inorderthatwemay``beourselves’’,``liveourownlife’’,etc。AccordingtotheformerinterpretationrationalSelf-developmentismerelyanothertermforthepursuitofPerfectionforoneself:whileinthelattersenseithardlyappearsthatSelf-development(whenclearlydistinguished)isreallyputforwardasanabsoluteend,butratherasameanstohappiness;forsupposingamantohaveinheritedpropensitiesclearlytendingtohisownunhappiness,noonewouldrecommendhimtodeveloptheseasfullyaspossible,insteadofmodifyingorsubduingtheminsomeway。Whetheractuallythebestwayofseekinghappinessistogivefreeplaytoone’snature,wewillhereafterconsiderinthecourseofourexaminationofHedonism。

Onthewhole,then,IconcludethatthenotionofSelfrealisationistobeavoidedinatreatiseonethicalmethod,onaccountofitsindefiniteness:

andforasimilarreasonwemustdiscardacommonaccountofEgoismwhichdescribesitsultimateendasthe`good’oftheindividual;fortheterm`good’maycoverallpossibleviewsoftheultimateendofrationalconduct。

IndeeditmaybesaidthatEgoisminthissensewasassumedininthewholeethicalcontroversyofancientGreece;thatis,itwasassumedonallsidesthatarationalindividualwouldmakethepursuitofhisowngoodhissupremeaim:thecontrovertedquestionwaswhetherthisGoodwasrightlyconceivedasPleasureorVirtue,oranytertiumquid。NoristheambiguityremovedifwefollowAristotleinconfiningourattentiontotheGoodattainableinhumanlife,andcallthisWell-being(Eudaimonia)。ForwemaystillarguewiththeStoics,thatvirtuousorexcellentactivitiesandnotpleasuresaretheelementsofwhichtruehumanWell-beingiscomposed。

IndeedAristotlehimselfadoptsthisview,sofarastodeterminethedetailsofWell-beingaccordingly:thoughhedoesnot,withtheStoics,regardthepursuitofVirtueandthatofPleasureascompetingalternatives,holdingratherthatthe``bestpleasure’’isaninseparableconcomitantofthemostexcellentaction。EventheEnglishtermHappinessisnotfreefromasimilarambiguity。Itseems,indeed,tobecommonlyusedinBentham’swayasconvertiblewithPleasure,——orratherasdenotingthatofwhichtheconstituentsarepleasures——anditisinthissensethatIthinkitmostconvenienttouseit。Sometimes,however,inordinarydiscourse,thetermisratheremployedtodenoteaparticularkindofagreeableconsciousness,whichisdistinguishedfromandevencontrastedwithdefinitespecificpleasures——suchasthegratificationsofsensualappetiteorotherkeenandvehementdesires——asbeingatoncecalmerandmoreindefinite:wemaycharacteriseitasthefeelingwhichaccompaniesthenormalactivityofa``healthymindinahealthybody’’,andofwhichspecificpleasuresseemtoberatherstimulantsthanelements。Sometimes,again——though,Ithink,withamoremanifestdivergencefromcommonusage——``happiness’’

or``truehappiness’’isunderstoodinadefinitelynon-hedonisticsense,asdenotingresultsotherthanagreeablefeelingsofanykind。

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