第3章

Ihavefirstofallconsideredmankind；andtheresultofmythoughtshasbeen，thatamidstsuchaninfinitediversityoflawsandmanners，theywerenotsolelyconductedbythecapriceoffancy。

Ihavelaiddownthefirstprinciples，andhavefoundthattheparticularcasesfollownaturallyfromthem；thatthehistoriesofallnationsareonlyconsequencesofthem；andthateveryparticularlawisconnectedwithanotherlaw，ordependsonsomeotherofamoregeneralextent。

WhenIhavebeenobligedtolookbackintoantiquity，Ihaveendeavouredtoassumethespiritoftheancients，lestIshouldconsiderthosethingsasalikewhicharereallydifferent；andlestIshouldmissthedifferenceofthosewhichappeartobealike。

Ihavenotdrawnmyprinciplesfrommyprejudices，butfromthenatureofthings。

Hereagreatmanytruthswillnotappeartillwehaveseenthechainwhichconnectsthemwithothers。Themoreweenterintoparticulars，themoreweshallperceivethecertaintyoftheprinciplesonwhichtheyarefounded。Ihavenotevengivenalltheseparticulars，forwhocouldmentionthemallwithoutamostinsupportablefatigue？

Thereaderwillnotheremeetwithanyofthoseboldflightswhichseemtocharacterisetheworksofthepresentage。Whenthingsareexaminedwithneversosmalladegreeofextent，thesalliesofimaginationmustvanish；thesegenerallyarisefromthemind’scollectingallitspowerstoviewonlyonesideofthesubject，whileitleavestheotherunobserved。

Iwritenottocensureanythingestablishedinanycountrywhatsoever。

Everynationwillherefindthereasonsonwhichitsmaximsarefounded；

andthiswillbethenaturalinference，thattoproposealterationsbelongsonlytothosewhoaresohappyastobebornwithageniuscapableofpenetratingtheentireconstitutionofastate。

Itisnotamatterofindifferencethatthemindsofthepeoplebeenlightened。Theprejudicesofmagistrateshavearisenfromnationalprejudice。Inatimeofignorancetheyhavecommittedeventhegreatestevilswithouttheleastscruple；butinanenlightenedagetheyeventremblewhileconferringthegreatestblessings。Theyperceivetheancientabuses；theyseehowtheymustbereformed；buttheyaresensiblealsooftheabusesofareformation。Theylettheevilcontinue，iftheyfearaworse；theyarecontentwithalessergood，iftheydoubtagreater。Theyexamineintotheparts，tojudgeoftheminconnection；andtheyexamineallthecauses，todiscovertheirdifferenteffects。

CouldIbutsucceedsoastoaffordnewreasonstoeverymantolovehisprince，hiscountry，hislaws；newreasonstorenderhimmoresensibleineverynationandgovernmentoftheblessingsheenjoys，Ishouldthinkmyselfthemosthappyofmortals。

CouldIbutsucceedsoastopersuadethosewhocommand，toincreasetheirknowledgeinwhattheyoughttoprescribe；andthosewhoobey，tofindanewpleasureresultingfromobedience——Ishouldthinkmyselfthemosthappyofmortals。

ThemosthappyofmortalsshouldIthinkmyselfcouldIcontributetomakemankindrecoverfromtheirprejudices。ByprejudicesIheremean，notthatwhichrendersmenignorantofsomeparticularthings，butwhateverrendersthemignorantofthemselves。

Itisinendeavouringtoinstructmankindthatwearebestabletopractisethatgeneralvirtuewhichcomprehendstheloveofall。Man，thatflexiblebeing，conforminginsocietytothethoughtsandimpressionsofothers，isequallycapableofknowinghisownnature，wheneveritislaidopentohisview；andoflosingtheverysenseofit，whenthisideaisbanishedfromhismind。

OftenhaveIbegun，andasoftenhaveIlaidaside，thisundertaking。I

haveathousandtimesgiventheleavesIhadwrittentothewinds：I，everyday，feltmypaternalhandsfall。Ihavefollowedmyobjectwithoutanyfixedplan：Ihaveknownneitherrulesnorexceptions；I

havefoundthetruth，onlytoloseitagain。ButwhenIoncediscoveredmyfirstprinciples，everythingIsoughtforappeared；andinthecourseoftwentyyears，Ihaveseenmyworkbegun，growingup，advancingtomaturity，andfinished。

Ifthisworkmeetswithsuccess，Ishalloweitchieflytothegrandeurandmajestyofthesubject。However，IdonotthinkthatIhavebeentotallydeficientinpointofgenius。WhenIhaveseenwhatsomanygreatmenbothinFrance，England，andGermanyhavesaidbeforeme，I

havebeenlostinadmiration；butIhavenotlostmycourage：IhavesaidwithCorreggio，"AndIalsoamapainter。"

ADVERTISEMENT

1。Forthebetterunderstandingofthefirstfourbooksofthiswork，itistobeobservedthatwhatIdistinguishbythenameofvirtue，inarepublic，istheloveofone’scountry，thatis，theloveofequality。

Itisnotamoral，noraChristian，butapoliticalvirtue；anditisthespringwhichsetstherepublicangovernmentinmotion，ashonouristhespringwhichgivesmotiontomonarchy。HenceitisthatIhavedistinguishedtheloveofone’scountry，andofequality，bytheappellationofpoliticalvirtue。Myideasarenew，andthereforeIhavebeenobligedtofindnewwords，ortogivenewacceptationstooldterms，inordertoconveymymeaning。They，whoareunacquaintedwiththisparticular，havemademesaymoststrangeabsurdities，suchaswouldbeshockinginanypartoftheworld，becauseinallcountriesandgovernmentsmoralityisrequisite。

2。Thereaderisalsotonoticethatthereisavastdifferencebetweensayingthatacertainquality，modificationofthemind，orvirtue，isnotthespringbywhichgovernmentisactuated，andaffirmingthatitisnottobefoundinthatgovernment。WereItosaysuchawheelorsuchapinionisnotthespringwhichsetsthewatchgoing，canyouinferthencethattheyarenottobefoundinthewatch？SofarisitfrombeingtruethatthemoralandChristianvirtuesareexcludedfrommonarchy，thatevenpoliticalvirtueisnotexcluded。Inaword，honourisfoundinarepublic，thoughitsspringbepoliticalvirtue；andpoliticalvirtueisfoundinamonarchicalgovernment，thoughitbeactuatedbyhonour。

Toconclude，thehonestmanofwhomwetreatinthethirdbook，chapter5，isnottheChristian，butthepoliticalhonestman，whoispossessedofthepoliticalvirtuetherementioned。Heisthemanwholovesthelawsofhiscountry，andwhoisactuatedbytheloveofthoselaws。I

havesetthesemattersinaclearerlightinthepresentedition，bygivingamoreprecisemeaningtomyexpression：andinmostplaceswhereIhavemadeuseofthewordvirtueIhavetakencaretoaddthetermpolitical。

BookI。OfLawsinGeneral1。OftheRelationofLawstodifferentBeings。Laws，intheirmostgeneralsignification，arethenecessaryrelationsarisingfromthenatureofthings。Inthissenseallbeingshavetheirlaws：theDeity[1]

Hislaws，thematerialworlditslaws，theintelligencessuperiortomantheirlaws，thebeaststheirlaws，manhislaws。

Theywhoassertthatablindfatalityproducedthevariouseffectswebeholdinthisworldtalkveryabsurdly；forcananythingbemoreunreasonablethantopretendthatablindfatalitycouldbeproductiveofintelligentbeings？

Thereis，then，aprimereason；andlawsaretherelationssubsistingbetweenitanddifferentbeings，andtherelationsofthesetooneanother。

Godisrelatedtotheuniverse，asCreatorandPreserver；thelawsbywhichHecreatedallthingsarethosebywhichHepreservesthem。Heactsaccordingtotheserules，becauseHeknowsthem；Heknowsthem，becauseHemadethem；andHemadethem，becausetheyareinrelationtoHiswisdomandpower。

Sinceweobservethattheworld，thoughformedbythemotionofmatter，andvoidofunderstanding，subsiststhroughsolongasuccessionofages，itsmotionsmustcertainlybedirectedbyinvariablelaws；andcouldweimagineanotherworld，itmustalsohaveconstantrules，oritwouldinevitablyperish。

Thusthecreation，whichseemsanarbitraryact，supposeslawsasinvariableasthoseofthefatalityoftheAtheists。ItwouldbeabsurdtosaythattheCreatormightgoverntheworldwithoutthoserules，sincewithoutthemitcouldnotsubsist。

Theserulesareafixedandinvariablerelation。Inbodiesmoved，themotionisreceived，increased，diminished，orlost，accordingtotherelationsofthequantityofmatterandvelocity；eachdiversityisuniformity，eachchangeisconstancy。

Particularintelligentbeingsmayhavelawsoftheirownmaking，buttheyhavesomelikewisewhichtheynevermade。Beforetherewereintelligentbeings，theywerepossible；theyhadthereforepossiblerelations，andconsequentlypossiblelaws。Beforelawsweremade，therewererelationsofpossiblejustice。Tosaythatthereisnothingjustorunjustbutwhatiscommandedorforbiddenbypositivelaws，isthesameassayingthatbeforethedescribingofacirclealltheradiiwerenotequal。

Wemustthereforeacknowledgerelationsofjusticeantecedenttothepositivelawbywhichtheyareestablished：as，forinstance，ifhumansocietiesexisted，itwouldberighttoconformtotheirlaws；iftherewereintelligentbeingsthathadreceivedabenefitofanotherbeing，theyoughttoshowtheirgratitude；ifoneintelligentbeinghadcreatedanotherintelligentbeing，thelatteroughttocontinueinitsoriginalstateofdependence；ifoneintelligentbeinginjuresanother，itdeservesaretaliation；andsoon。

Buttheintelligentworldisfarfrombeingsowellgovernedasthephysical。Forthoughtheformerhasalsoitslaws，whichoftheirownnatureareinvariable，itdoesnotconformtothemsoexactlyasthephysicalworld。Thisisbecause，ontheonehand，particularintelligentbeingsareofafinitenature，andconsequentlyliabletoerror；andontheother，theirnaturerequiresthemtobefreeagents。Hencetheydonotsteadilyconformtotheirprimitivelaws；andeventhoseoftheirowninstitutingtheyfrequentlyinfringe。

Whetherbrutesbegovernedbythegenerallawsofmotion，orbyaparticularmovement，wecannotdetermine。Bethatasitmay，theyhavenotamoreintimaterelationtoGodthantherestofthematerialworld；

andsensationisofnootherusetothemthanintherelationtheyhaveeithertootherparticularbeingsortothemselves。

Bytheallurementofpleasuretheypreservetheindividual，andbythesameallurementtheypreservetheirspecies。Theyhavenaturallaws，becausetheyareunitedbysensation；positivelawstheyhavenone，becausetheyarenotconnectedbyknowledge。Andyettheydonotinvariablyconformtotheirnaturallaws；thesearebetterobservedbyvegetables，thathaveneitherunderstandingnorsense。

Brutesaredeprivedofthehighadvantageswhichwehave；buttheyhavesomewhichwehavenot。Theyhavenotourhopes，buttheyarewithoutourfears；theyaresubjectlikeustodeath，butwithoutknowingit；

evenmostofthemaremoreattentivethanwetoself—preservation，anddonotmakesobadauseoftheirpassions。

Man，asaphysicalbeing，islikeotherbodiesgovernedbyinvariablelaws。Asanintelligentbeing，heincessantlytransgressesthelawsestablishedbyGod，andchangesthoseofhisowninstituting。Heislefttohisprivatedirection，thoughalimitedbeing，andsubject，likeallfiniteintelligences，toignoranceanderror：evenhisimperfectknowledgeheloses；andasasensiblecreature，heishurriedawaybyathousandimpetuouspassions。SuchabeingmighteveryinstantforgethisCreator；Godhasthereforeremindedhimofhisdutybythelawsofreligion。Suchabeingisliableeverymomenttoforgethimself；

philosophyhasprovidedagainstthisbythelawsofmorality。Formedtoliveinsociety，hemightforgethisfellow—creatures；legislatorshavethereforebypoliticalandcivillawsconfinedhimtohisduty。

2。OftheLawsofNature。Antecedenttotheabove—mentionedlawsarethoseofnature，socalled，becausetheyderivetheirforceentirelyfromourframeandexistence。Inordertohaveaperfectknowledgeoftheselaws，wemustconsidermanbeforetheestablishmentofsociety：

thelawsreceivedinsuchastatewouldbethoseofnature。

Thelawwhich，impressingonourmindstheideaofaCreator，inclinesustowardsHim，isthefirstinimportance，thoughnotinorder，ofnaturallaws。Maninastateofnaturewouldhavethefacultyofknowing，beforehehadacquiredanyknowledge。Plainitisthathisfirstideaswouldnotbeofaspeculativenature；hewouldthinkofthepreservationofhisbeing，beforehewouldinvestigateitsorigin。Suchamanwouldfeelnothinginhimselfatfirstbutimpotencyandweakness；

hisfearsandapprehensionswouldbeexcessive；asappearsfrominstances（werethereanynecessityofprovingit）ofsavagesfoundinforests，[2]tremblingatthemotionofaleaf，andflyingfromeveryshadow。

Inthisstateeveryman，insteadofbeingsensibleofhisequality，wouldfancyhimselfinferior。Therewouldthereforebenodangeroftheirattackingoneanother；peacewouldbethefirstlawofnature。

ThenaturalimpulseordesirewhichHobbesattributestomankindofsubduingoneanotherisfarfrombeingwellfounded。Theideaofempireanddominionissocomplex，anddependsonsomanyothernotions，thatitcouldneverbethefirstwhichoccurredtothehumanunderstanding。

Hobbes[3]inquires，"Forwhatreasongomenarmed，andhavelocksandkeystofastentheirdoors，iftheybenotnaturallyinastateofwar？"

Butisitnotobviousthatheattributestomankindbeforetheestablishmentofsocietywhatcanhappenbutinconsequenceofthisestablishment，whichfurnishesthemwithmotivesforhostileattacksandself—defence？

Nexttoasenseofhisweaknessmanwouldsoonfindthatofhiswants。

Henceanotherlawofnaturewouldprompthimtoseekfornourishment。

Fear，Ihaveobserved，wouldinducementoshunoneanother；butthemarksofthisfearbeingreciprocal，wouldsoonengagethemtoassociate。Besides，thisassociationwouldquicklyfollowfrom。theverypleasureoneanimalfeelsattheapproachofanotherofthesamespecies。Again，theattractionarisingfromthedifferenceofsexeswouldenhancethispleasure，andthenaturalinclinationtheyhaveforeachotherwouldformathirdlaw。

Besidethesenseorinstinctwhichmanpossessesincommonwithbrutes，hehastheadvantageofacquiredknowledge；andthencearisesasecondtie，whichbruteshavenot。Mankindhavethereforeanewmotiveofuniting；andafourthlawofnatureresultsfromthedesireoflivinginsociety。

3。OfPositiveLaws。Assoonasmanentersintoastateofsocietyhelosesthesenseofhisweakness；equalityceases，andthencommencesthestateofwar。

Eachparticularsocietybeginstofeelitsstrength，whencearisesastateofwarbetweendifferentnations。Theindividualslikewiseofeachsocietybecomesensibleoftheirforce；hencetheprincipaladvantagesofthissocietytheyendeavourtoconverttotheirownemolument，whichconstitutesastateofwarbetweenindividuals。

Thesetwodifferentkindsofstatesgiverisetohumanlaws。Consideredasinhabitantsofsogreataplanet，whichnecessarilycontainsavarietyofnations，theyhavelawsrelatingtotheirmutualintercourse，whichiswhatwecallthelawofnations。Asmembersofasocietythatmustbeproperlysupported，theyhavelawsrelatingtothegovernorsandthegoverned，andthiswedistinguishbythenameofpoliticlaw。Theyhavealsoanothersortoflaw，astheystandinrelationtoeachother；

bywhichisunderstoodthecivillaw。

Thelawofnationsisnaturallyfoundedonthisprinciple，thatdifferentnationsoughtintimeofpeacetodooneanotherallthegoodtheycan，andintimeofwaraslittleinjuryaspossible，withoutprejudicingtheirrealinterests。

Theobjectofwarisvictory；thatofvictoryisconquest；andthatofconquestpreservation。Fromthisandtheprecedingprincipleallthoserulesarederivedwhichconstitutethelawofnations。

Allcountrieshavealawofnations，notexceptingtheIroquoisthemselves，thoughtheydevourtheirprisoners：fortheysendandreceiveambassadors，andunderstandtherightsofwarandpeace。Themischiefisthattheirlawofnationsisnotfoundedontrueprinciples。

Besidesthelawofnationsrelatingtoallsocieties，thereisapolityorcivilconstitutionforeachparticularlyconsidered。Nosocietycansubsistwithoutaformofgovernment。"Theunitedstrengthofindividuals，"asGravina[4]wellobserves，"constituteswhatwecallthebodypolitic。"

Thegeneralstrengthmaybeinthehandsofasingleperson，orofmany。

Somethinkthatnaturehavingestablishedpaternalauthority，themostnaturalgovernmentwasthatofasingleperson。Buttheexampleofpaternalauthorityprovesnothing。Forifthepowerofafatherrelatestoasinglegovernment，thatofbrothersafterthedeathofafather，andthatofcousins—germanafterthedeceaseofbrothers，refertoagovernmentofmany。Thepoliticalpowernecessarilycomprehendstheunionofseveralfamilies。

Betterisittosay，thatthegovernmentmostconformabletonatureisthatwhichbestagreeswiththehumouranddispositionofthepeopleinwhosefavouritisestablished。

Thestrengthofindividualscannotbeunitedwithoutaconjunctionofalltheirwills。"Theconjunctionofthosewills，"asGravinaagainveryjustlyobserves，"iswhatwecallthecivilstate。"

Lawingeneralishumanreason，inasmuchasitgovernsalltheinhabitantsoftheearth：thepoliticalandcivillawsofeachnationoughttobeonlytheparticularcasesinwhichhumanreasonisapplied。

Theyshouldbeadaptedinsuchamannertothepeopleforwhomtheyareframedthatitshouldbeagreatchanceifthoseofonenationsuitanother。

Theyshouldbeinrelationtothenatureandprincipleofeachgovernment；whethertheyformit，asmaybesaidofpoliticlaws；orwhethertheysupportit，asinthecaseofcivilinstitutions。

Theyshouldbeinrelationtotheclimateofeachcountry，tothequalityofitssoil，toitssituationandextent，totheprincipaloccupationofthenatives，whetherhusbandmen，huntsmen，orshepherds：

theyshouldhaverelationtothedegreeoflibertywhichtheconstitutionwillbear；tothereligionoftheinhabitants，totheirinclinations，riches，numbers，commerce，manners，andcustoms。Infine，theyhaverelationstoeachother，asalsototheirorigin，totheintentofthelegislator，andtotheorderofthingsonwhichtheyareestablished；inallofwhichdifferentlightstheyoughttobeconsidered。

ThisiswhatIhaveundertakentoperforminthefollowingwork。TheserelationsIshallexamine，sinceallthesetogetherconstitutewhatI

calltheSpiritofLaws。

Ihavenotseparatedthepoliticalfromthecivilinstitutions，asIdonotpretendtotreatoflaws，butoftheirspirit；andasthisspiritconsistsinthevariousrelationswhichthelawsmaybeartodifferentobjects，itisnotsomuchmybusinesstofollowthenaturalorderoflawsasthatoftheserelationsandobjects。

Ishallfirstexaminetherelationswhichlawsbeartothenatureandprincipleofeachgovernment；andasthisprinciplehasastronginfluenceonlaws，Ishallmakeitmystudytounderstanditthoroughly：

andifIcanbutonceestablishit，thelawswillsoonappeartoflowthenceasfromtheirsource。Ishallproceedafterwardstootherandmoreparticularrelations。

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1。"Law，"saysPlutarch，"isthekingofmortalandimmortalbeings。"

Seehistreatise，ADiscoursetoanUnlearnedPrince。

2。WitnessthesavagefoundintheforestsofHanover，whowascarriedovertoEnglandduringthereignofGeorgeI。

3。Inpref。，Decive。

4。Italianpoetandjurist，1664—1718。

BookII。OfLawsDirectlyDerivedfromtheNatureofGovernment1。OftheNatureofthethreedifferentGovernments。Therearethreespeciesofgovernment：republican，monarchical，anddespotic。Inordertodiscovertheirnature，itissufficienttorecollectthecommonnotion，whichsupposesthreedefinitions，orratherthreefacts：thatarepublicangovernmentisthatinwhichthebody，oronlyapartofthepeople，ispossessedofthesupremepower；monarchy，thatinwhichasinglepersongovernsbyfixedandestablishedlaws；adespoticgovernment，thatinwhichasinglepersondirectseverythingbyhisownwillandcaprice。

ThisiswhatIcallthenatureofeachgovernment；wemustnowinquireintothoselawswhichdirectlyconformtothisnature，andconsequentlyarethefundamentalinstitutions。

2。OftheRepublicanGovernment，andtheLawsinrelationtoDemocracy。[1]Whenthebodyofthepeopleispossessedofthesupremepower，itiscalledademocracy。Whenthesupremepowerislodgedinthehandsofapartofthepeople，itisthenanaristocracy。

Inademocracythepeopleareinsomerespectsthesovereign，andinothersthesubject。

Therecanbenoexerciseofsovereigntybutbytheirsuffrages，whicharetheirownwill；nowthesovereign’swillisthesovereignhimself。

Thelawsthereforewhichestablishtherightofsuffragearefundamentaltothisgovernment。Andindeeditisasimportanttoregulateinarepublic，inwhatmanner，bywhom，towhom，andconcerningwhat，suffragesaretobegiven，asitisinamonarchytoknowwhoistheprince，andafterwhatmannerheoughttogovern。

Libanius[2]saysthatatAthensastrangerwhointermeddledintheassembliesofthepeoplewaspunishedwithdeath。Thisisbecausesuchamanusurpedtherightsofsovereignty。