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The Spirit of Laws
投诉 阅读记录

第13章

Again,itiscorruptedwhenmeanandabjectsoulsgrowvainofthepompattendingtheirservitude,andimaginethatthemotivewhichinducesthemtobeentirelydevotedtotheirprinceexemptsthemfromalldutytotheircountry。

Butifitbetrue(andindeedtheexperienceofallageshasshownit)

thatinproportionasthepowerofthemonarchbecomesboundlessandimmense,hissecuritydiminishes,isthecorruptingofthispower,andthealteringofitsverynature,alesscrimethanthatofhightreasonagainsttheprince?

8。DangeroftheCorruptionofthePrincipleofmonarchicalGovernment。

Thedangerisnotwhenthestatepassesfromonemoderatetoanothermoderategovernment,asfromarepublictoamonarchy,orfromamonarchytoarepublic;butwhenitisprecipitatedfromamoderatetoadespoticgovernment。

MostoftheEuropeannationsarestillgovernedbytheprinciplesofmorality。Butiffromalongabuseofpowerorthefuryofconquest,despoticswayshouldprevailtoacertaindegree,neithermoralsnorclimatewouldbeabletowithstanditsbalefulinfluence:andthenhumannaturewouldbeexposed,forsometimeatleast,eveninthisbeautifulpartoftheworld,totheinsultswithwhichshehasbeenabusedintheotherthree。

9。HowreadytheNobilityaretodefendtheThrone。TheEnglishnobilityburiedthemselveswithCharlestheFirstundertheruinsofthethrone;

andbeforethattime,whenPhiliptheSecondendeavouredtotempttheFrenchwiththeallurementofliberty,thecrownwasconstantlysupportedbyanobilitywhothinkitanhonourtoobeyaking,butconsideritasthelowestdisgracetosharethepowerwiththepeople。

ThehouseofAustriahaseverusedherendeavourstooppresstheHungariannobility;littlethinkinghowserviceablethatverynobilitywouldbeonedaytoher。Shewouldfainhavedrainedtheircountryofmoney,ofwhichtheyhadnoplenty;buttooknonoticeofthemen,withwhomitabounded。Whenprincescombinedtodismemberherdominions,theseveralpartsofthatmonarchyfellmotionless,asitwereoneuponanother。Nolifewasthentobeseenbutinthoseverynobles,who,resentingtheaffrontsofferedtothesovereign,andforgettingtheinjuriesdonetothemselves,tookuparmstoavengehercause,andconsidereditthehighestglorybravelytodieandtoforgive。

10。OftheCorruptionofthePrincipleofdespoticGovernment。Theprincipleofdespoticgovernmentissubjecttoacontinualcorruption,becauseitiseveninitsnaturecorrupt。Othergovernmentsaredestroyedbyparticularaccidents,whichdoviolencetotheprinciplesofeachconstitution;thisisruinedbyitsownintrinsicimperfections,whensomeaccidentalcausesdonotpreventthecorruptingofitsprinciples。Itmaintainsitselfthereforeonlywhencircumstances,drawnfromtheclimate,religion,situation,orgeniusofthepeople,obligeittoconformtoorder,andtoadmitofsomerule。Bythesethingsitsnatureisforcedwithoutbeingchanged;itsferocityremains;anditismadetameandtractableonlyforatime。

11。NaturalEffectsoftheGoodnessandCorruptionofthePrinciplesofGovernment。Whenoncetheprinciplesofgovernmentarecorrupted,theverybestlawsbecomebad,andturnagainstthestate:butwhentheprinciplesaresound,evenbadlawshavethesameeffectasgood;theforceoftheprincipledrawseverythingtoit。

TheinhabitantsofCreteusedaverysingularmethodtokeeptheprincipalmagistratesdependentonthelaws,whichwasthatofInsurrection。Partofthecitizensroseupinarms,[13]putthemagistratestoflight,andobligedthemtoreturntoaprivatelife。

Thiswassupposedtobedoneinconsequenceofthelaw。Onewouldhaveimaginedthataninstitutionofthisnature,whichestablishedseditiontohindertheabuseofpower,wouldhavesubvertedanyrepublicwhatsoever;andyetitdidnotsubvertthatofCrete。Thereasonisthis。[14]

Whentheancientswouldciteapeoplethathadthestrongestaffectionfortheircountry,theyweresuretomentiontheinhabitantsofCrete:

"OurCountry,"saidPlato,[15]"anamesodeartotheCretans。"Theycalleditbyanamewhichsignifiestheloveofamotherforherchildren。[16]Nowtheloveofourcountrysetseverythingright。

ThelawsofPolandhavelikewisetheirInsurrection:buttheinconveniencesthencearisingplainlyshowthatthepeopleofCretealonewerecapableofusingsucharemedywithsuccess。

ThegymnicexercisesestablishedamongtheGreekshadthesamedependenceonthegoodnessoftheprincipleofgovernment。"ItwastheLaced?moniansandCretans,"saidPlato,[17]"thatopenedthosecelebratedacademieswhichgavethemsoeminentarankintheworld。

Modestyatfirstwasalarmed;butityieldedtothepublicutility。"InPlato’stimetheseinstitutionswereadmirable:[18]astheyborearelationtoaveryimportantobject,whichwasthemilitaryart。ButwhenvirtuefledfromGreece,themilitaryartwasdestroyedbytheseinstitutions;peopleappearedthenonthearena,notforimprovement,butfordebauch。[19]Plutarchinformsus[20]thattheRomansinhistimewereofopinionthatthosegameshadbeentheprincipalcauseoftheslaveryintowhichtheGreekshadfallen。Onthecontrary,itwastheslaveryoftheGreeksthatcorruptedthoseexercises。InPlutarch’stime,[21]theirfightingnakedintheparks,andtheirwrestling,infectedtheyoungpeoplewithaspiritofcowardice,inclinedthemtoinfamouspassions,andmadethemmeredancers。ButunderEpaminondastheexerciseofwrestlingmadetheThebanswinthefamousbattleofLeuctra。[22]

Thereareveryfewlawswhicharenotgood,whilethestateretainsitsprinciples:hereImayapplywhatEpicurussaidofriches。"Itisnottheliquor,butthevesselthatiscorrupted。"

12。ThesameSubjectcontinued。InRomethejudgeswerechosenatfirstfromtheorderofsenators。ThisprivilegetheGracchitransferredtotheknights;Drususgaveittothesenatorsandknights;Sullatothesenatorsonly:Cottatothesenators,knights,andpublictreasurers;

C?sarexcludedthelatter;Antonymadedecuriesofsenators,knights,andcenturions。

Whenoncearepubliciscorrupted,thereisnopossibilityofremedyinganyofthegrowingevils,butbyremovingthecorruptionandrestoringitslostprinciples;everyothercorrectioniseitheruselessoranewevil。WhileRomepreservedherprinciplesentire,thejudicialpowermightwithoutanyabusebelodgedinthehandsofsenators;butassoonasthiscitybecamecorrupt,towhatsoeverbodythatpowerwastransferred,whethertothesenate,totheknights,tothetreasurers,totwoofthosebodies,toallthreetogether,ortoanyother,mattersstillwentwrong。Theknightshadnomorevirtuethanthesenate,thetreasurersnomorethantheknights,andtheseaslittleasthecenturions。

AfterthepeopleofRomehadobtainedtheprivilegeofsharingthemagistracywiththepatricians,itwasnaturaltothinkthattheirflattererswouldimmediatelybecomearbitersofthegovernment。Butnosuchthingeverhappened。——Itwasobservablethattheverypeoplewhohadrenderedtheplebeianscapableofpublicofficeseverfixedtheirchoiceuponthepatricians。Becausetheywerevirtuous,theyweremagnanimous;andbecausetheywerefree,theyhadacontemptofpower。

Butwhentheirmoralswerecorrupted,themorepowertheywerepossessedof,thelessprudentwastheirconduct,tillatlength,uponbecomingtheirowntyrantsandslaves,theylostthestrengthoflibertytofallintotheweaknessandimpotencyoflicentiousness。

13。TheEffectofanOathamongvirtuousPeople。Thereisnonation,saysLivy,[23]thathasbeenlongeruncorruptedthantheRomans;nonationwheremoderationandpovertyhavebeenlongerrespected。

Suchwastheinfluenceofanoathamongthosepeoplethatnothingboundthemmorestronglytothelaws。Theyoftendidmorefortheobservanceofanoaththantheywouldeverhaveperformedforthethirstofgloryorfortheloveoftheircountry。

WhenQuintusCincinnatus,theconsul,wantedtoraiseanarmyinthecityagainstthe?quiandtheVolsci,thetribunesopposedhim。"Well,"

saidhe,"letallthosewhohavetakenanoathtotheconsuloftheprecedingyearmarchundermybanner。"[24]Invaindidthetribunescryoutthatthisoathwasnolongerbinding,andthatwhentheytookitQuintuswasbutaprivateperson:thepeopleweremorereligiousthanthosewhopretendedtodirectthem;theywouldnotlistentothedistinctionsorequivocationsofthetribunes。

WhenthesamepeoplethoughtofretiringtotheSacredMount,theyfeltsomeremorsefromtheoaththeyhadtakentotheconsuls,thattheywouldfollowthemintothefield。[25]Theyenteredthenintoadesignofkillingtheconsuls;butdroppeditwhentheyweregiventounderstandthattheiroathwouldstillbebinding。Nowitiseasytojudgeofthenotiontheyentertainedoftheviolationofanoathfromthecrimetheyintendedtocommit。

AfterthebattleofCann?,thepeoplewereseizedwithsuchapanicthattheywouldfainhaveretiredtoSicily。ButScipiohavingprevaileduponthemtosweartheywouldnotstirfromRome,thefearofviolatingthisoathsurpassedallotherapprehensions。Romewasashipheldbytwoanchors,religionandmorality,inthemidstofafurioustempest。

14。HowthesmallestChangeoftheConstitutionisattendedwiththeRuinofitsPrinciples。AristotlementionsthecityofCarthageasawell—regulatedrepublic。Polybiustellsus[26]thattherewasthisinconvenienceatCarthageinthesecondPunicwar,thatthesenatehadlostalmostallitsauthority。WeareinformedbyLivythatwhenHannibalreturnedtoCarthagehefoundthatthemagistratesandtheprincipalcitizenshadabusedtheirpower,andconvertedthepublicrevenuestotheirprivateemolument。Thevirtue,therefore,ofthemagistrates,andtheauthorityofthesenate,bothfellatthesametime;andallwasowingtothesamecause。

EveryoneknowsthewonderfuleffectsofthecensorshipamongtheRomans。Therewasatimewhenitgrewburdensome;butstillitwassupportedbecausetherewasmoreluxurythancorruption。Claudius[27]

weakeneditsauthority,bywhichmeansthecorruptionbecamegreaterthantheluxury,andthecensorshipdwindledawayofitself。[28]Aftervariousinterruptionsandresumptions,itwasentirelylaidaside,tillitbecamealtogetheruseless,thatis,tillthereignsofAugustusandClaudius。

15。SureMethodsofpreservingthethreePrinciples。Ishallnotbeabletomakemyselfrightlyunderstoodtillthereaderhasperusedthefourfollowingchapters。

16。DistinctivePropertiesofaRepublic。Itisnaturalforarepublictohaveonlyasmallterritory;otherwiseitcannotlongsubsist。Inanextensiverepublictherearemenoflargefortunes,andconsequentlyoflessmoderation;therearetruststooconsiderabletobeplacedinanysinglesubject;hehasinterestsofhisown;hesoonbeginstothinkthathemaybehappyandglorious,byoppressinghisfellow—citizens;

andthathemayraisehimselftograndeurontheruinsofhiscountry。

Inanextensiverepublicthepublicgoodissacrificedtoathousandprivateviews;itissubordinatetoexceptions,anddependsonaccidents。Inasmallone,theinterestofthepublicismoreobvious,betterunderstood,andmorewithinthereachofeverycitizen;abuseshavelessextent,andofcoursearelessprotected。

ThelongdurationoftherepublicofSpartawasowingtoherhavingcontinuedinthesameextentofterritoryafterallherwars。ThesoleaimofSpartawasliberty;andthesoleadvantageofherliberty,glory。

ItwasthespiritoftheGreekrepublicstobeascontentedwiththeirterritoriesaswiththeirlaws。AthenswasfirstfiredwithambitionandgaveittoLaced?mon;butitwasanambitionratherofcommandingafreepeoplethanofgoverningslaves;ratherofdirectingthanofbreakingtheunion。Allwaslostuponthestartingupofmonarchy——agovernmentwhosespiritismoreturnedtoincreaseofdominion。

Exceptingparticularcircumstances,[29]itisdifficultforanyotherthanarepublicangovernmenttosubsistlongerinasingletown。A

princeofsopettyastatewouldnaturallyendeavourtooppresshissubjects,becausehispowerwouldbegreat,whilethemeansofenjoyingitorofcausingittoberespectedwouldbeinconsiderable。Theconsequenceis,hewouldtrampleuponhispeople。Ontheotherhand,suchaprincemightbeeasilycrushedbyaforeignorevenadomesticforce;thepeoplemightanyinstantuniteandriseupagainsthim。Nowassoonasthesovereignofasingletownisexpelled,thequarrelisover;butifhehasmanytowns,itonlybegins。

17。DistinctivePropertiesofaMonarchy。Amonarchicalstateoughttobeofmoderateextent。Wereitsmall,itwouldformitselfintoarepublic;wereitverylarge,thenobility,possessedofgreatestates,farfromtheeyeoftheprince,withaprivatecourtoftheirown,andsecure,moreover,fromsuddenexecutionsbythelawsandmannersofthecountry——suchanobility,Isay,mightthrowofftheirallegiance,havingnothingtofearfromtooslowandtoodistantapunishment。

ThusCharlemagnehadscarcelyfoundedhisempirewhenhewasobligedtodivideit;whetherthegovernorsoftheprovincesrefusedtoobey;orwhether,inordertokeepthemmoreundersubjection,therewasanecessityofparcellingtheempireintoseveralkingdoms。

AfterthedeceaseofAlexanderhisempirewasdivided。HowwasitpossibleforthoseGreekandMacedonianchiefs,whowereeachofthemfreeandindependent,orcommandersatleastofthevictoriousbandsdispersedthroughoutthatvastextentofconqueredland——howwasitpossible,Isay,forthemtoobey?

Attila’sempirewasdissolvedsoonafterhisdeath;suchanumberofkings,whowerenolongerunderrestraint,couldnotresumetheirfetters。

Thesuddenestablishmentofunlimitedpowerisaremedy,whichinthosecasesmaypreventadissolution:buthowdreadfultheremedy,whichaftertheenlargementofdominionopensanewsceneofmisery!

Therivershastentomingletheirwaterswiththesea;andmonarchieslosethemselvesindespoticpower。

18。ParticularCaseoftheSpanishMonarchy。LetnottheexampleofSpainbeproducedagainstme,itratherproveswhatIaffirm。TopreserveAmericashedidwhatevendespoticpoweritselfdoesnotattempt:shedestroyedtheinhabitants。Topreservehercolony,shewasobligedtokeepitdependentevenforitssubsistence。

IntheNetherlands,sheessayedtorenderherselfarbitrary;andassoonassheabandonedtheattempt,herperplexityincreased。OntheonehandtheWalloonswouldnotbegovernedbySpaniards;andontheother,theSpanishsoldiersrefusedtosubmittoWalloonofficers。[30]

InItalyshemaintainedherground,merelybyexhaustingherselfandbyenrichingthatcountry。ForthosewhowouldhavebeenpleasedtohavegotridofthekingofSpainwerenotinahumourtorefusehisgold。

19。DistinctivePropertiesofadespoticGovernment。Alargeempiresupposesadespoticauthorityinthepersonwhogoverns。Itisnecessarythatthequicknessoftheprince’sresolutionsshouldsupplythedistanceoftheplacestheyaresentto;thatfearshouldpreventtheremissnessofthedistantgovernorormagistrate;thatthelawshouldbederivedfromasingleperson,andshouldshiftcontinually,accordingtotheaccidentswhichnecessarilymultiplyinastateinproportiontoitsextent。

20。ConsequenceoftheprecedingChapters。Ifitbe,therefore,thenaturalpropertyofsmallstatestobegovernedasarepublic,ofmiddlingonestobesubjecttoamonarch,andoflargeempirestobeswayedbyadespoticprince;theconsequenceis,thatinordertopreservetheprinciplesoftheestablishedgovernment,thestatemustbesupportedintheextentithasacquired,andthatthespiritofthisstatewillalterinproportionasitcontractsorextendsitslimits。

21。OftheEmpireofChina。BeforeIconcludethisbook,Ishallansweranobjectionthatmaybemadetotheforegoingdoctrine。

OurmissionariesinformusthatthegovernmentofthevastempireofChinaisadmirable,andthatithasapropermixtureoffear,honour,andvirtue。ConsequentlyImusthavegivenanidledistinctioninestablishingtheprinciplesofthethreegovernments。

ButIcannotconceivewhatthishonourcanbeamongapeoplewhoactonlythroughfearofbeingbastinadoed。[31]

Again,ourmerchantsarefarfromgivingusanysuchaccountsofthevirtuesomuchtalkedofbythemissionaries;weneedonlyconsulttheminrelationtotherobberiesandextortionsofthemandarins。[32]I

likewiseappealtoanotherunexceptionalwitness,thegreatLordAnson。

Besides,FatherPerennin’slettersconcerningtheemperor’sproceedingsagainstsomeoftheprincesoftheblood[33]whohadincurredhisdispleasurebytheirconversion,plainlyshowusasettledplanoftyranny,andbarbaritiescommittedbyrule,thatis,incoldblood。

WehavelikewiseMonsieurdeMairan’s,andthesameFatherPerennin’s,lettersonthegovernmentofChina。Ifindthereforethatafterafewproperquestionsandanswersthewholemysteryisunfolded。

Mightnotourmissionarieshavebeendeceivedbyanappearanceoforder?

Mightnottheyhavebeenstruckwiththatconstantexerciseofasingleperson’swill——anexercisebywhichtheythemselvesaregoverned,andwhichtheyaresopleasedtofindinthecourtsoftheIndianprinces;

becauseastheygothitheronlyinordertointroducegreatchanges,itismucheasiertopersuadethoseprincesthattherearenoboundstotheirpower,thantoconvincethepeoplethattherearenonetotheirsubmission。[34]

Infine,thereisfrequentlysomekindoftrutheveninerrorsthemselves。Itmaybeowingtoparticularand,perhaps,veryextraordinarycircumstancesthattheChinesegovernmentisnotsocorruptasonemightnaturallyexpect。Theclimateandsomeotherphysicalcausesmay,inthatcountry,havehadsostronganinfluenceontheirmoralsasinsomemeasuretoproducewonders。

TheclimateofChinaissurprisinglyfavourabletothepropagationofthehumanspecies。[35]Thewomenarethemostprolificinthewholeworld。Themostbarbaroustyrannycanputnostoptotheprogressofpropagation。TheprincecannotsaytherelikePharaoh,"Letusdealwiselywiththem,lesttheymultiply。"HewouldberatherreducedtoNero’swish,thatmankindhadallbutonehead。Inspiteoftyranny,Chinabytheforceofitsclimatewillbeeverpopulous,andtriumphoverthetyrannicaloppressor。

China,likeallothercountriesthatlivechieflyuponrice,issubjecttofrequentfamines。Whenthepeoplearereadytostarve,theydisperseinordertoseekfornourishment;inconsequenceofwhich,gangsofrobbersareformedoneveryside。Mostofthemareextirpatedintheirveryinfancy;othersswell,andarelikewisesuppressed。Andyetinsogreatanumberofsuchdistantprovinces,somebandorothermayhappentomeetwithsuccess。Inthatcasetheymaintaintheirground,strengthentheirparty,formthemselvesintoamilitarybody,marchuptothecapital,andplacetheirleaderonthethrone。

Fromtheverynatureofthings,abadadministrationishereimmediatelypunished。Thewantofsubsistenceinsopopulousacountryproducessuddendisorders。Thereasonwhytheredressofabusesinothercountriesisattendedwithsuchdifficultyisbecausetheireffectsarenotimmediatelyfelt;theprinceisnotinformedinsosuddenandsensibleamannerasinChina。

TheEmperorofChinaisnottaughtlikeourprincesthatifhegovernsillhewillbelesshappyintheotherlife,lesspowerfulandlessopulentinthis。Heknowsthatifhisgovernmentbenotjusthewillbestrippedbothofempireandlife。

AsChinagrowseverydaymorepopulous,notwithstandingtheexposingofchildren,[36]theinhabitantsareincessantlyemployedintillingthelandsfortheirsubsistence。Thisrequiresaveryextraordinaryattentioninthegovernment。Itistheirperpetualconcernthateverymanshouldhaveitinhispowertowork,withouttheapprehensionofbeingdeprivedofthefruitsofhislabour。Consequentlythisisnotsomuchacivilasadomesticgovernment。

Suchhasbeentheoriginofthoseregulationswhichhavebeensogreatlyextolled。Theywantedtomakethelawsreigninconjunctionwithdespoticpower;butwhateverisjoinedtothelatterlosesallitsforce。Invaindidthisarbitrarysway,labouringunderitsowninconveniences,desiretobefettered;itarmeditselfwithitschains,andhasbecomestillmoreterrible。

Chinaisthereforeadespoticstate,whoseprincipleisfear。Perhapsintheearliestdynasties,whentheempirehadnotsolargeanextent,thegovernmentmighthavedeviatedalittlefromthisspirit;butthecaseisotherwiseatpresent。

______

1。SeePlutarchinTimoleonandDion。

2。ItwasthatoftheSixHundred,ofwhommentionismadebyDiodorus,xix。5。

3。Upontheexpulsionsofthetyrants,theymadecitizensofstrangersandmercenarytroops,whichgaverisetocivilwars。——Aristotle,Politics,v。3。ThepeoplehavingbeenthecauseofthevictoryovertheAthenians,therepublicwaschanged。——Ibid。,4。Thepassionoftwoyoungmagistrates,oneofwhomcarriedofftheother’sboy,andinrevengetheotherdebauchedhiswife,wasattendedwithachangeintheformofthisrepublic。——Ibid。

4。Ibid。

5。Ibid。

6。Thearistocracyischangedintoanoligarchy。

7。Veniceisoneofthoserepublicsthathasenactedthebestlawsforcorrectingtheinconveniencesofanhereditaryaristocracy。

8。JustinattributestheextinctionofAthenianvirtuetothedeathofEpaminondas。Havingnofurtheremulation,theyspenttheirrevenuesinfeasts,frequentiuscoenam,quamcastravisentes。ThenitwasthattheMacedoniansemergedfromobscurity,9,1。6。

9。CompilationofworksmadeundertheMings,relatedbyFatherDuHalde,DescriptionofChina,ii,p。648。

10。DuringthereignofTiberiusstatueswereerectedto,andtriumphalornamentsconferredon,informers;whichdebasedthesehonourstosuchadegreethatthosewhohadreallymeritedthemdisdainedtoacceptthem。

Frag。ofDio,lviii。14,takenfromtheExtractofVirtuesandVices,byConstantinePorphyrogenitus。SeeinTacitusinwhatmannerNero,onthediscoveryandpunishmentofapretendedconspiracy,bestowedtriumphalornamentsonPetroniusTurpilianus,Nerva,andTigellinus。——Annals,xiv。72。Seelikewisehowthegeneralsrefusedtoserve,becausetheycondemnedthemilitaryhonours:pervulgatistriumphiinsignibus——

Ibid。,xiii。53。

11。Inthisstatetheprinceknewextremelywelltheprincipleofhisgovernment。

12。Herodian。

13。Aristotle,Politics,ii。10。

14。Theyalwaysunitedimmediatelyagainstforeignenemies,whichwascalledSyncretism。——PlutarchMoralia,p。88。

15。Republic,ix。

16。Plutarch,WhetheraManAdvancedinYearsOughttoMeddlewithPublicAffairs。

17。Republic,v。

18。TheGymnicartwasdividedintotwoparts,dancingandwrestling。InCretetheyhadthearmeddancesoftheCuretes;atSpartatheyhadthoseofCastorandPollux;atAthensthearmeddancesofPallas,whichwereextremelyproperforthosethatwerenotyetofageformilitaryservice。Wrestlingistheimageofwar,saidPlatoLaws,vii。Hecommendsantiquityforhavingestablishedonlytwodances,thepacificandthePyrrhic。Seehowthelatterdancewasappliedtothemilitaryart,Plato,ibid。

19。Autlibidinosce。Lad?asLacedamonispal?stras。——Mutual,iv,55。

20。Plutarch,inthetreatiseentitledQuestionsConcerningtheAffairsoftheRomans,question40。

21。Ibid。

22。Plutarch,TablePropositions,bookii,question5。

23。Booki,pref。

24。Livy,iii。20。

25。Ibid。,32。

26。Aboutahundredyearsafter。

27。Seexi,12。

28。SeeDio,xxxviii,CiceroinPlutarch,CicerotoAtticus,iv。10,15。

AsconiusonCicero,DeDivinatione。

29。Aswhenapettysovereignsupportshimselfbetweentwogreatpowersbymeansoftheirmutualjealousy;butthenhehasonlyaprecariousexistence。

30。SeeM。LeClerc,theHistoryoftheUnitedProvinces。

31。"ItisthecudgelthatgovernsChina,"saysFatherDuHalde,Disc。

delaChine,ii,p。134。

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