第15章

conquerorwhoenterstriumphantintoacountrywherethemoneyedmenhave，byavarietyofartifices，insensiblyarrivedatinnumerablewaysofencroachingonthepublic，wherethemiserablepeople，whoseeabusesgrownintolaws，arereadytosinkundertheweightofimpression，yetthinktheyhavenorighttoapplyforredress——aconqueror，Isay，maymakeatotalchange，andthenthetyrannyofthosewretcheswillbethefirstthingexposedtohisresentment。

Wehavebeheld，forinstance，countriesoppressedbythefarmersoftherevenues，andeasedafterwardsbytheconqueror，whohadneithertheengagementsnorwantsofthelegitimateprince。Eventheabuseshavebeenoftenredressedwithoutanyinterpositionoftheconqueror。

Sometimesthefrugalityofaconqueringnationhasenabledthemtoallowtheconqueredthosenecessariesofwhichtheyhadbeendeprivedunderalawfulprince。

Aconquestmaydestroyperniciousprejudices，andlay，ifImaypresumetousetheexpression，thenationunderabettergenius。

WhatgoodmightnottheSpaniardshavedonetotheMexicans？Theyhadamildreligiontoimparttothem；buttheyfilledtheirheadswithafranticsuperstition。Theymighthavesetslavesatliberty；theymadefreemenslaves。Theymighthaveundeceivedthemwithregardtotheabuseofhumansacrifices；insteadofthattheydestroyedthem。NevershouldI

havefinished，wereItorecountallthegoodtheymighthavedone，andallthemischieftheycommitted。

Itisaconqueror’sbusinesstorepairapartofthemischiefhehasoccasioned。Theright，therefore，ofconquestIdefinethus：anecessary，lawful，butunhappypower，whichleavestheconquerorunderaheavyobligationofrepairingtheinjuriesdonetohumanity。

5。Gelon，KingofSyracuse。Thenoblesttreatyofpeaceevermentionedinhistoryis，inmyopinion，thatwhichGelonmadewiththeCarthaginians。Heinsistedupontheirabolishingthecustomofsacrificingtheirchildren。[3]Gloriousindeed！AfterhavingdefeatedthreehundredthousandCarthaginians，herequiredaconditionthatwasadvantageousonlytothemselves，orratherhestipulatedinfavourofhumannature。

TheBactriansexposedtheiragedfatherstobedevouredbylargemastiffs——acustomsuppressedbyAlexander，wherebyheobtainedasignaltriumphoversuperstition。

6。OfConquestmadebyaRepublic。Itiscontrarytothenatureofthingsthatinaconfederategovernmentonestateshouldmakeanyconquestoveranother，asinourdayswehaveseeninSwitzerland。[4]Inmixedconfederaterepublics，wheretheassociationisbetweenpettyrepublicsandmonarchies，ofasmallextent，thisisnotsoabsurd。

Contraryisitalsotothenatureofthingsthatademocraticrepublicshouldconquertownswhichcannotenterintothesphereofitsdemocracy。Itisnecessarythattheconqueredpeopleshouldbecapableofenjoyingtheprivilegesofsovereignty，aswassettledintheverybeginningamongtheRomans。Theconquestoughttobelimitedtothenumberofcitizensfixedforthedemocracy。

Ifademocraticrepublicsubduesanationinordertogovernthemassubjects，itexposesitsownliberty；becauseitentruststoogreatapowertothosewhoareappointedtothecommandoftheconqueredprovinces。

HowdangerouswouldhavebeenthesituationoftherepublicofCarthagehadHannibalmadehimselfmasterofRome？Whatwouldhenothavedoneinhisowncountry，hadhebeenvictorious，hewhocausedsomanyrevolutionsinitafterhisdefeat？[5]

HannocouldneverhavedissuadedthesenatefromsendingsuccourtoHannibal，hadheusednootherargumentthanhisownjealousy。TheCarthaginiansenate，whosewisdomissohighlyextolledbyAristotle（andwhichhasbeenevidentlyprovedbytheprosperityofthatrepublic），couldneverhavebeendeterminedbyotherthansolidreasons。

Theymusthavebeenstupidnottoseethatanarmyatthedistanceofthreehundredleagueswouldnecessarilybeexposedtolosseswhichrequiredreparation。

Hanno’spartyinsistedthatHannibalshouldbedelivereduptotheRomans。[6]TheycouldnotatthattimebeafraidoftheRomans；theywerethereforeapprehensiveofHannibal。

Itwasimpossible，somewillsay，forthemtoimaginethatHannibalhadbeensosuccessful。Buthowwasitpossibleforthemtodoubtit？CouldtheCarthaginians，apeoplespreadoveralltheearth，beignorantofwhatwastransactinginItaly？No：theyweresufficientlyacquaintedwithit，andforthatreasontheydidnotcaretosendsuppliestoHannibal。

HannobecamemoreresoluteafterthebattleofTrebia，afterthebattleofThrasimenus，afterthatofCann？；itwasnothisincredulitythatincreased，buthisfear。

7。ThesameSubjectcontinued。Thereisstillanotherinconvenienceinconquestsmadebydemocracies：theirgovernmentiseverodioustotheconqueredstates。Itisapparentlymonarchical：butinrealityitismuchmoreoppressivethanmonarchy，astheexperienceofallagesandcountriesevinces。

Theconqueredpeopleareinamelancholysituation；theyneitherenjoytheadvantagesofarepublic，northoseofamonarchy。

Whathasbeenheresaidofapopularstateisapplicabletoaristocracy。

8。ThesameSubjectcontinued。Whenarepublic，therefore，keepsanothernationinsubjection，itshouldendeavourtorepairtheinconveniencesarisingfromthenatureofitssituationbygivingitgoodlawsbothforthepoliticalandcivilgovernmentofthepeople。

WehaveaninstanceofanislandintheMediterranean，subjecttoanItalianrepublic，whosepoliticalandcivillawswithregardtotheinhabitantsofthatislandwereextremelydefective。Theactofindemnity，[7]bywhichitordainedthatnooneshouldbecondemnedtobodilypunishmentinconsequenceoftheprivateknowledgeofthegovernor，exinformataconscientia，isstillrecentineverybody’smemory。Therehavebeenfrequentinstancesofthepeople’spetitioningforprivileges；herethesovereigngrantsonlythecommonrightofallnations。

9。OfConquestsmadebyaMonarchy。Ifamonarchycanlongsubsistbeforeitisweakenedbyitsincrease，itwillbecomeformidable；anditsstrengthwillremainentire，whilepentupbytheneighbouringmonarchies。

Itoughtnot，therefore，toaimatconquestsbeyondthenaturallimitsofitsgovernment。Sosoonasithaspassedtheselimits，itisprudencetostop。

Inthiskindofconquestthingsmustbeleftastheywerefound——thesamecourtsofjudicature，thesamelaws，thesamecustoms，thesameprivileges：thereoughttobenootheralterationthanthatofthearmyandofthenameofthesovereign。

Whenamonarchyhasextendeditslimitsbytheconquestofneighbouringprovinces，itshouldtreatthoseprovinceswithgreatlenity。

Ifamonarchyhasbeenlongendeavouringatconquest，theprovincesofitsancientdemesnearegenerallyill—used。Theyareobligedtosubmitbothtothenewandtotheancientabuses；andtobedepopulatedbyavastmetropolis，thatswallowsupthewhole。Nowif，afterhavingmadeconquestsroundthisdemesne，theconqueredpeopleweretreatedliketheancientsubjects，thestatewouldbeundone；thetaxessentbytheconqueredprovincestothecapitalwouldneverreturn；theinhabitantsofthefrontierswouldberuined，andconsequentlythefrontierswouldbeweaker；thepeoplewouldbedisaffected；andthesubsistenceofthearmiesdesignedtoactandremaintherewouldbecomemoreprecarious。

Suchisthenecessarystateofaconqueringmonarchy：ashockingluxuryinthecapital；miseryintheprovincessomewhatdistant；andplentyinthemostremote。Itisthesamewithsuchamonarchyaswithourplanet；

fireatthecentre，verdureonthesurface，andbetweenbothadry，cold，andbarrenearth。

10。OfoneMonarchythatsubduesanother。Sometimesonemonarchysubduesanother。Thesmallerthelatter，thebetteritisoverawedbyfortresses；andthelargeritis，thebetterwillitbepreservedbycolonies。

11。OftheMannersofaconqueredPeople。Itisnotsufficientinthoseconqueststolettheconquerednationenjoytheirownlaws；itis，perhaps，morenecessarytoleavethemalsotheirmanners，becausepeopleingeneralhaveastrongerattachmenttothesethantotheirlaws。

TheFrenchhavebeendrivenninetimesoutofItaly，because，ashistorianssay，[8]oftheirinsolentfamiliaritieswiththefairsex。Itistoomuchforanationtobeobligedtobearnotonlywiththeprideofconquerors，butwiththeirincontinenceandindiscretion；theseare，withoutdoubt，mostgrievousandintolerable，astheyarethesourceofinfiniteoutrages。

12。OfaLawofCyrus。FaramIfromthinkingthatagoodlawwhichCyrusmadetoobligetheLydianstopractisenonebutmeanorinfamousprofessions。Itistruehedirectedhisattentiontoanobjectofthegreatestimportance：hethoughtofguardingagainstrevolts，andnotinvasions；butinvasionswillsooncome，whenthePersiansandLydiansuniteandcorrupteachother。Iwouldthereforemuchrathersupportbylawsthesimplicityandrudenessoftheconqueringnationthantheeffeminacyoftheconquered。

Aristodemus，tyrantofCum？，[9]usedallhisendeavourstobanishcourage，andtoenervatethemindsofyouth。Heorderedthatboysshouldlettheirhairgrowinthesamemannerasgirls，thattheyshoulddeckitwithflowers，andwearlongrobesofdifferentcoloursdowntotheirheels；thatwhentheywenttotheirmastersofmusicanddancing，theyshouldhavewomenwiththemtocarrytheirumbrellas，perfumes，andfans，andtopresentthemwithcombsandlooking—glasseswhenevertheybathed。Thiseducationlastedtilltheageoftwenty——aneducationthatcouldbeagreeabletononebuttoapettytyrant，whoexposeshissovereigntytodefendhislife。

13。CharlesXII。Thisprince，whodependedentirelyonhisownstrength，hastenedhisruinbyformingdesignsthatcouldneverbeexecutedbutbyalongwar——athingwhichhiskingdomwasunabletosupport。

Itwasnotadecliningstateheundertooktosubvert，butarisingempire。TheRussiansmadeuseofthewarhewagedagainstthemasofamilitaryschool。Everydefeatbroughtthemnearertovictory；and，losingabroad，theylearnedtodefendthemselvesathome。

Charles，inthedesertsofPoland，imaginedhimselfsovereignofthewholeworld：herehewandered，andwithhiminsomemeasurewanderedSweden；whilehiscapitalenemyacquirednewstrengthagainsthim，lockedhimup，madesettlementsalongtheBaltic，destroyedorsubduedLivonia。

Swedenwaslikeariverwhosewatersarecutoffatthefountainheadinordertochangeitscourse。

ItwasnottheaffairofPultowathatruinedCharles。Hadhenotbeendestroyedatthatplace，hewouldhavebeeninanother。Thecasualtiesoffortuneareeasilyrepaired；butwhocanbeguardedagainsteventsthatincessantlyarisefromthenatureofthings？

Butneithernaturenorfortunewereeversomuchagainsthimashehimself。

Hewasnotdirectedbythepresentsituationofthings，butbyakindofplanofhisforming；andeventhishefollowedveryill。HewasnotanAlexander；buthewouldhavemadeanexcellentsoldierunderthatmonarch。

Alexander’sprojectsucceededbecauseitwasprudentlyconcerted。ThebadsuccessofthePersiansintheirseveralinvasionsofGreece，theconquestsofAgesilaus，andtheretreatofthetenthousandhadshowntodemonstrationthesuperiorityoftheGreeksintheirmanneroffightingandintheirarms；anditwaswellknownthatthePersiansweretooproudtobecorrected。

ItwasnolongerpossibleforthemtoweakenGreecebydivisions：Greecewasthenunitedunderonehead，whichcouldnotpitchuponabettermethodofrenderingherinsensibletoherservitudethanbyflatteringhervanitywiththedestructionofherhereditaryenemy，andwiththehopesoftheconquestofAsia。

Anempirecultivatedbythemostindustriousnationintheworld，thatfollowedagriculturefromaprincipleofreligion——anempireaboundingwitheveryconvenienceoflife，furnishedtheenemywithallnecessarymeansofsubsisting。

Itwaseasytojudgebytheprideofthosekings，whoinvainweremortifiedbytheirnumerousdefeats，thattheywouldprecipitatetheirruinbytheirforwardnessinventuringbattles；andthattheflatteryoftheircourtierswouldneverpermitthemtodoubtoftheirgrandeur。

Theprojectwasnotonlywise，butwiselyexecuted。Alexander，intherapidityofhisconquests，evenintheimpetuosityofhispassion，had，ifImaysoexpressmyself，aflashofreasonbywhichhewasdirected，andwhichthosewhowouldfainhavemadearomanceofhishistory，andwhosemindsweremorecorruptthanhis，couldnotconcealfromourview。

Letusdescendmoreminutelyintohishistory。

14。Alexander。HedidnotsetoutuponhisexpeditiontillhehadsecuredMacedoniaagainsttheneighbouringbarbarians，andcompletedthereductionofGreece；heavailedhimselfofthisconquestfornootherendthanfortheexecutionofhisgrandenterprise；herenderedthejealousyoftheLaced？moniansofnoeffect；heattackedthemaritimeprovinces；hecausedhislandforcestokeepclosetothesea—coast，thattheymightnotbeseparatedfromhisfleet；hemadeanadmirableuseofdisciplineagainstnumbers；heneverwantedprovisions；andifitbetruethatvictorygavehimeverything，he，inhisturn，dideverythingtoobtainit。

Inthebeginningofhisenterprise——atimewhentheleastcheckmighthaveprovedhisdestruction——hetrustedverylittletofortune；butwhenhisreputationwasestablishedbyaseriesofprosperousevents，hesometimeshadrecoursetotemerity。WhenbeforehisdepartureforAsiahemarchedagainsttheTriballiansandIllyrians，youfindhewagedwar[10]againstthosepeopleintheverysamemannerasC？sarafterwardsconductedthatagainsttheGauls。UponhisreturntoGreece，[11]itwasinsomemeasureagainsthiswillthathetookanddestroyedThebes。Whenheinvestedthatcity，hewantedtheinhabitantstocomeintotermsofpeace；buttheyhastenedtheirownruin。WhenitwasdebatedwhetherheshouldattackthePersianfleet，[12]itisParmeniowhoshowshispresumption，Alexanderhiswisdom。HisaimwastodrawthePersiansfromthesea—coast，andtolaythemunderanecessityofabandoningtheirmarine，inwhichtheyhadamanifestsuperiority。TyrebeingfromprincipleattachedtothePersians，whocouldnotsubsistwithoutthecommerceandnavigationofthatcity，Alexanderdestroyedit。HesubduedEgypt，whichDariushadleftbareoftroopswhilehewasassemblingimmensearmiesinanotherworld。

TothepassageoftheGranicus，AlexanderowedtheconquestoftheGreekcolonies；tothebattleofIssus，thereductionofTyreandEgypt；tothebattleofArbela，theempireoftheworld。

AfterthebattleofIssus，hesufferedDariustoescape，andemployedhistimeinsecuringandregulatinghisconquests：afterthebattleofArbela，hepursuedhimsoclose[13]astoleavehimnoplaceofrefugeinhisempire。Dariusentershistowns，hisprovinces，toquitthemthenextmoment；andAlexandermarcheswithsuchrapiditythattheempireoftheworldseemstoberathertheprizeofanOlympianracethanthefruitofagreatvictory。Inthismannerhecarriedonhisconquests：

letusnowseehowhepreservedthem。

HeopposedthosewhowouldhavehadhimtreattheGreeksasmasters[14]

andthePersiansasslaves。Hethoughtonlyofunitingthetwonations，andofabolishingthedistinctionsofaconqueringandaconqueredpeople。Afterhehadcompletedhisvictories，herelinquishedallthoseprejudicesthathadhelpedhimtoobtainthem。HeassumedthemannersofthePersians，thathemightnotchagrinthemtoomuchbyobligingthemtoconformtothoseoftheGreeks。ItwasthishumanitywhichmadehimshowsogreatarespectforthewifeandmotherofDarius；andthisthatmadehimsocontinent。Whataconqueror！Heislamentedbyallthenationshehassubdued！Whatausurper！Athisdeaththeveryfamilyhehascastfromthethroneisallintears。Thesewerethemostgloriouspassagesinhislife，andsuchashistorycannotproduceaninstanceofinanyotherconqueror。

Nothingconsolidatesaconquestmorethantheunionformedbetweenthetwonationsbymarriages。[15]Alexanderchosehiswivesfromthenationhehadsubdued；heinsistedonhiscourtiersdoingthesame；andtherestoftheMacedoniansfollowedtheexample。TheFranksandBurgundianspermittedthosemarriages；[16]theVisigothsforbadetheminSpain，andafterwardsallowedthem。[17]BytheLombardstheywerenotonlyallowedbutencouraged。[18]WhentheRomanswantedtoweakenMacedonia，theyorderedthatthereshouldbenointermarriagesbetweenthepeopleofdifferentprovinces。

Alexander，whoseaimwastounitethetwonations，thoughtfittoestablishinPersiaagreatnumberofGreekcolonies。Hebuilt，therefore，amultitudeoftowns；andsostronglywereallthepartsofthisnewempirecemented，thatafterhisdecease，amidstthedisturbancesandconfusionofthemostfrightfulcivilwars，whentheGreekshadreducedthemselves，asitwere，toastateofannihilation，notasingleprovinceofPersiarevolted。

TopreventGreeceandMacedonfrombeingtoomuchexhausted，hesentacolonyofJews[19]toAlexandria；themannersofthosepeoplesignifiednothingtohim，providedhecouldbesureoftheirfidelity。

Henotonlysufferedtheconquerednationstoretaintheirowncustomsandmanners，butlikewisetheircivillaws；andfrequentlytheverykingsandgovernorstowhomtheyhadbeensubject：theMacedonians[20]

heplacedattheheadofthetroops，andthenativesofthecountryattheheadofthegovernment，ratherchoosingtorunthehazardofaparticulardisloyalty（whichsometimeshappened）thanofageneralrevolt。

Hepaidgreatrespecttotheancienttraditions，andtoallthepublicmonumentsofthegloryorvanityofnations。ThePersianmonarchshavingdestroyedthetemplesoftheGreeks，Babylonians，andEgyptians，Alexanderrebuiltthem：[21]fewnationssubmittedtohisyoketowhosereligionhedidnotconform；andhisconquestsseemtohavebeenintendedonlytomakehimtheparticularmonarchofeachnation，andthefirstinhabitantofeachcity。TheaimoftheRomansinconquestwastodestroy，histopreserve；andwhereverhedirectedhisvictoriousarms，hischiefviewwastoachievesomethingwhencethatcountrymightderiveanincreaseofprosperityandpower。Toattainthisend，hewasenabledfirstofallbythegreatnessofhisgenius；secondly，byhisfrugalityandprivateeconomy；[22]thirdly，byhisprofusioninmattersofimportance。Hewascloseandreservedinhisprivateexpenses，butgeneroustothehighestdegreeinthoseofapublicnature。Inregulatinghishousehold，hewastheprivateMacedonian；butinpayingthetroops，insharinghisconquestswiththeGreeks，andinhislargessestoeverysoldierinhisarmy，hewasAlexander。

HecommittedtwoverybadactionsinsettingPersepolisonfireandslayingClitus；butherenderedthemfamousbyhisrepentance。Henceitisthathiscrimesareforgotten，whilehisregardforvirtuewasrecorded：theywereconsideredratherasunluckyaccidentsthanashisowndeliberateacts。Posterity，struckwiththebeautyofhismind，eveninthemidstofhisirregularpassion，canviewhimonlywithpity，butneverwithaneyeofhatred。

LetusdrawacomparisonbetweenhimandC？sar。TheRomangeneral，byattemptingtoimitatetheAsiaticmonarch，flunghisfellow—citizensintoastateofdespairforamatterofmereostentation；theMacedonianprince，bythesameimitation，didathingwhichwasquiteagreeabletohisoriginalschemeofconquest。

15。NewMethodsofpreservingaConquest。Whenamonarchhassubduedalargecountry，hemaymakeuseofanadmirablemethod，equallyproperformoderatingdespoticpower，andforpreservingtheconquest；itisamethodpractisedbytheconquerorsofChina。

Inordertopreventthevanquishednationfromfallingintodespair，thevictorsfromgrowinginsolentandproud，thegovernmentfrombecomingmilitary，andtocontainthetwonationswithintheirduty，theTartarfamilynowonthethroneofChinahasordainedthateverymilitarycorpsintheprovincesshouldbecomposedhalfofChineseandhalfTartars，totheendthatthejealousybetweenthetwonationsmaykeepthemwithinbounds。ThecourtsofjudicaturearelikewisehalfChineseandhalfTartars。Thisisproductiveofseveralgoodeffects，1。Thetwonationsareachecktooneanother。2。Theybothpreservethecivilandmilitarypower，andoneisnotdestroyedbytheother，3。Theconqueringnationmayspreaditselfwithoutbeingweakenedandlost。Itislikewiseenabledtowithstandcivilandforeignwars。Thewantofsowiseaninstitutionasthishasbeentheruinofalmostalltheconquerorsthateverexisted。

16。OfConquestsmadebyadespoticPrince。Whenaconquesthappenstobevastlylarge，itsupposesadespoticpower；andthenthearmydispersedintheprovincesisnotsufficient。Thereshouldbealwaysabodyoffaithfultroopsneartheprince，readytofallinstantlyuponanypartoftheempirethatmaychancetowaver。Thismilitarycorpsoughttoawetherest，andtostriketerrorintothosewhothroughnecessityhavebeenentrustedwithanyauthorityintheempire。TheemperorofChinahasalwaysalargebodyofTartarsnearhisperson，readyuponalloccasions。InIndia，inTurkey，inJapan，theprincehasalwaysabody—guardindependentoftheotherregularforces。Thisparticularcorpskeepsthedispersedtroopsinawe。

17。ThesameSubjectcontinued。Wehaveobservedthatthecountriessubduedbyadespoticmonarchoughttobeheldbyavassal。Historiansareverylavishoftheirpraisesofthegenerosityofthoseconquerorswhorestoredtheprincestothethronewhomtheyhadvanquished。

ExtremelygenerousthenweretheRomans，whomadesuchanumberofkings，inordertohaveinstrumentsofslavery。[23]Aproceedingofthatkindisabsolutelynecessary。Iftheconquerorintendstopreservethecountrywhichhehassubdued，neitherthegovernorshesendswillbeabletocontainthesubjectswithinduty，norhehimselfthegovernors。

Hewillbeobligedtostriphisancientpatrimonyoftroops，inordertosecurehisnewdominions。Themiseriesofeachnationwillbecommontoboth；civilbroilswillspreadthemselvesfromonetotheother。Onthecontrary，iftheconquerorrestoresthelegitimateprincetothethrone，hewillofcoursehaveanally；bythejunctionofwhoseforceshisownpowerwillbeaugmented。WehavearecentinstanceofthisinShahNadir，whoconqueredtheMogul，seizedhistreasures，andlefthiminpossessionofHindostan。

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1。SeetheCodeofBarbarianLaws，andBookxxviiibelow。

2。SeetheanonymousauthoroftheLifeofLouisleDebonnaire，inDuchesne’scollection，ii，p。296。

3。SeeM。Barbeyrac’scollection，art。112。

4。WithregardtoTockenburg。

5。Hewasattheheadofafaction。

6。HannowantedtodeliverHannibaluptotheRomans，asCatowouldfainhavedeliveredupC？sartotheGauls。

7。Ofthe18thofOctober，1738，printedatGenoabyFranchelli。SeealsotheAmsterdamGazette，Dec。23，1738。

8。SeePufendorff’sUniversalHistory。

9。DionysiusHalicarnassus，vii。

10。SeeArrian，DeExpedit。Alex。，i。

11。Ibid。

12。Ibid。

13。Ibid。，iii。

14。ThiswasAristotle’sadvice。Plutarch，OftheFortuneandVirtueofAlexander。

15。Arrian，DeExpedit。Alex。，vii。

16。SeetheLawoftheBurgundians，tit。12，art。5。

17。SeetheLawoftheVisigoths，iii，tit。1，§1，whichabrogatestheancientlawthathadmoreregard，itsays，tothedifferenceofnationsthantothatofpeople’sconditions。

18。SeetheLawoftheLombards，ii，tit。7，§§1，2。

19。ThekingsofSyria，abandoningtheplanlaiddownbythefounderoftheempire，resolvedtoobligetheJewstoconformtothemannersoftheGreeks——aresolutionthatgavethemostterribleshocktotheirgovernment。

20。SeeArrian，DeExpedit。Alex。，iii，andothers。

21。Ibid。

22。Ibid。，vii。

23。Tacitus，LifeofAgricola，14。